MAIM  UWtARY-AOmCULTUWE  DEPT 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 


Tongue 
upper  bill  removeA 


e     Crop 

d    Esophagus 

0      True  stoma 

/*     Gizzard 

o     Duodenum 

h     Small  intettin* 

S      Caeca 

ft     Rectum 

m     Cloaca. 

o     Lirer 

p     Spleen, 

0&U  bl&ddir 

Pancreas 


•Tbe  digestive  tract  of  a  fowl. 


POULTRY  FEEDS 
AND   FEEDING 


HARRY  M.  LAMON 

FORMERLY  SENIOR  POULTRYMAN,  UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF 
AGRICULTURE 

AND 
ALFRED  R.  LEE, 

POULTRYMAN  IN   CHARGE,  UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


ILLUSTRATED 


NEW  YORK 
ORANGE   JUDD    PUBLISHING    COMPANY 

LONDON 

KEGAN  PAUL,  TRENCH,  TRUBNER  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

1922 


COPYRIGHT,  1922,  BY 

ORANGE  JUDD  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 
All  Rights  Reserved 

MAIN  LISWARY-A<5WIcUl/rui«|r  DEFT, 

fct  ':? 


PRINTED  IN   U.  S.  A. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION 

PAGE 

PLACE  AND  IMPORTANCE  OF  POULTRY  IN  AGRICULTURE  ...        n 

PART  I.    PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  POULTRY 
CHAPTER  I 

COMPOSITION   OF   PLANTS 17 

How  plants  make  food — Production  of  carbohydrates  and 
vegetable  fats — Production  of  nitrogenous  and  mineral 
compounds.  Factors  influencing  the  nutritive  value  of 
feeds 

CHAPTER  II 

COMPOSITION  AND  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  FOWL  AND  OF  EGGS         .        23 
Composition  of  a  fowl  and  of  eggs — Table  i.  Composi- 
tion of  poultry  and  eggs — Parts  taken  by  mineral  salts — 
Anatomy   of   the    fowl — Digestion  and   assimilation   of 
food — Structure  of  the  egg 

CHAPTER  III 

ECONOMICAL  PRODUCTION  OF  EGGS  AND  OF  POULTRY  FLESH.  .  30 
Relative  production  of  animal  food  by  animals  and  fowls 
— Place  and  importance  of  poultry  farms — Meat  versus 
egg  production  on  poultry  farms — The  soft  roaster  in- 
dustry— Duck  farming — Commercial  poultry  fattening — 
Dressed  weights  of  poultry 

CHAPTER  IV 

FEEDING  STANDARDS  AND  THE  EFFECT  OF  DIFFERENT  NUTRIENTS  40 
Measuring  feed  values  for  animals — How  feeds  are 
analyzed — Difference  in  value  and  in  use  of  feed  nutrients 
— Products  essential  to  life  and  growth — Sources  of  these 
essential  products — Feeding  standards  for  fowls— Nutri- 
tive ratios — Example  of  nutritive  ratio — Feed  require- 
ments of  chicks  and  mature  fowls — Feed  requirements 
of  chickens  per  day  for  each  100  pounds  of  live  weight 


535688 


CONTENTS 

PART  II.    DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

CHAPTER  V 

CEREALS  AND  THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS  USED  IN  POULTRY  FEEDING       51 
Indian   corn   and    its   by-products — Wheat   and    its   by- 
products— Oats  and  their  by-products — Barley  and  brew- 
ers' grains—Rye— Emmer— Sorghums  and  millets— Buck- 
wheat 

CHAPTER  VI 

SEEDS  AND  VEGETABLE  PROTEIN  FEEDS 69 

Canada  field  pea — Use  of  peas  in  pigeon  feeds — Soy  beans 
and  soy  bean  meal — Cowpeas  and  beans — Peanuts  and 
peanut  meal — Cocoanut  meal — Cottonseed  meal— ^Flax 
seed  and  linseed  meal — Hemp  seed — Rice 

CHAPTER  VII 

ANIMAL  PROTEIN,  MILK  AND  MISCELLANEOUS  FEEDS    ...       82 
Packing  house  by-products — Fresh  meat  and  bone — Fish 
meal — Milk — Dried  milk — Semi-solid  and  condensed  but- 
termilk— Beet  pulp — Molasses — Dried  distillers'  grains — 
Acorns — Condimental  or  stock  feeds — Mineral  feeds 

CHAPTER  VIII 

GREEN  AND  SUCCULENT  FEEDS 97 

Green  feeds — Grasses — Legumes  for  forage  and  for  hay 
— Roots  and  tubers — Miscellaneous  green  and  succulent 
feeds — Rape — Kale — Soilage  of  crops — Sprouted  grains 
— Yeast — Poisonous  plants — Preparation  of  feeds 

PART  III.  PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

CHAPTER  IX 
METHOD  OF  FEEDING  LAYING  HENS    .......      117 

Relative  value  of  moist  and  dry  mashes — Scratch  feeds — 
Commercial  mixed  feeds — Green  feeds — Forage  crops — 
Sprouted  oats — Cabbages  and  mangel  beets — Clover  and 
alfalfa— Oyster  shells— Grit— Charcoal— Water— Quan- 
tity of  grain  to  feed — Proportion  of  grain  and  mash — 
Quality  of  feed — Feeding  the  general  farm  flock — Feed- 
ing the  backyard  flock 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  X 

EGG  LAYING  RATIONS 146 

Selection  of  a  ration— Balanced  rations—The  nutritive 
ratio — Value  of  animal  protein  feeds — Vegetable  protein 
feeds — Commercial  scratch  mixtures  and  mashes — Effect 
of  feed  on  quality  of  eggs 

CHAPTER  XI 

FEEDING  AND   FATTENING   CHICKENS 156 

Feeding  baby  chicks — Feed  for  growing  chickens — Fatten- 
ing poultry  for  market — Best  chickens  to  fatten — 
Method  of  pen  fattening — Crate  fattening — Fattening 
hens — Fattening  rations — Feather  picking — Length  of 
fattening  period — Cramming  poultry — Best  time  to  mar- 
ket poultry — Selling  hens  alive — Shrinkage  in  dress- 
ing poultry — Feeding  and  shipping  live  poultry 
CHAPTER  XII 

MANAGEMENT  OF  LAYING  STOCK  .      . 182 

Value  of  early  hatching— Exercise— Use  of  artificial 
lights — Kind  of  light  to  use — Forcing  the  molt  and  feed- 
ing during  the  summer — Culling  and  selection  of  stock — 
Difference  in  methods  of  feeding  hens  and  pullets — Man- 
agement of  breeding  stock  and  male  birds — Management 
of  broody  hens 

CHAPTER  XIII 

FEEDING  DUCKS,  GEESE,  TURKEYS,  PIGEONS  AND  CAPONS  .  .  194 
The  feeding  of  ducks — Feeding  ducklings — Feeding  breed- 
ing and  laying  ducks — Feeding  geese — Feeding  the  gos- 
lings— Preparing  for  market — Noodling  geese — Feeding 
turkeys — Feeding  turkey  poults — Fattening  turkeys — 
Feeding  pigeons — Feeding  squab  breeders — Composition 
of  pigeon  feedstuffs — Feeding  flying  pigeons — Feeding 
capons 

CHAPTER  XIV 

PROFIT  AND  ECONOMY  IN  POULTRY  FEEDING 214 

Feed  cost  of  producing  eggs — Feed  consumed  per  dozen 
eggs  at  Government  poultry- farm  and  at  egg-laying 
contests — Monthly  record  of  total  feed  consumed  per 
dozen  eggs  and  egg  yield  per  hen  at  the  Government  farm 
— Feed  cost  of  growing  chickens — Feed  required  to  grow 
chickens — Normal  weight  of  growing  chickens — Labor 
cost  of  producing  eggs — Growing  crops  on  poultry 
farms — Care  of  yards  and  ranges — Oat  sprouters — Labor- 
saving  devices 

APPENDIX    ....*• 236 

Table  I— Egg  Laying  Rations;  Table  II— Composition 
and  Digestible  Nutrients  of  Poultry  Feeds 

7 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

All  illustrations  are  by  the  courtesy  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Indus- 
try, United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Frontispiece.    The  digestive  tract  of  a  fowl 

Fig.     I.  Anatomy  of  the  fowl 26 

Fig.    2.  Feeds   making  a  balanced   ration 42 

Fig.    3.  Average  feed  consumption  of  a  hen      ....  43 

Fig.    4.  Mangel  beets   prepared   for   feeding     ....  106 

Fig.    5.  Growing  green  feed  in  the  poultry  yard  .       ...       .  107 

Fig.    6.  Feeding  garbage 142 

Fig.    7.  Egg  yolks  affected  by  cottonseed  feeding     .       .       .  143 

Fig.    8.  Plan  of  a  fattening  battery 165 

Fig.    9.  Milk  fattening  of  chickens 166 

Fig.  10.  Interior   poultry   grading   room 167 

Fig.  ii.  Feeding  chickens  with  a  cramming  machine       .       .  174 

Fig.  12.  Live  poultry  shipping  cars 175 

Fig.  13.  Use  of  artificial  lights 184 

Fig.  14.  Feeding  scratch  grains 185 

Fig.  15.  Large  flock  of  geese  on  fattening  farm     .       .       .  200 

Fig.  16.  Feeding  young  ducks 201 

Fig.  17.  Open  oats   sprouter 228 

Fig.  18.  Enclosed  oats  sprouter 229 

Fig.  19.  Simple  box  style  hopper 230 

Fig.  20.  Labor  saving  devices 231 

Fig.  21.  Wall  type  dry  mash  feed  hopper 232 

Fig.  22.  Out-door  feed  hopper 233 

Fig.  23.  Another  style  of  out-door  feed  hopper  ....  234 


PREFACE 

"Poultry  Feeds  and  Feeding"  is  designed  to  meet  the 
needs  of  both  poultry  keepers  and  students  by  furnishing 
detailed  information  on  all  feeds  and  methods  of  feeding 
used  with  poultry.  Grains,  rations  and  methods  of  feed- 
ing used  in  every  section  of  the  United  States  are  taken 
up  and  discussed  to  make  this  book  of  value  in  all  sections. 

Part  I  is  devoted  to  the  principles  of  feeding,  explains 
which  elements  have  been  found  essential  in  feeding  poul- 
try and  tells  why  certain  combinations  are  made.  This 
part  of  the  book  is  of  special  value  to  the  student  of  poul- 
try but  the  authors  have  tried  to  present  this  in  a  plain 
style  which  can  be  grasped  by  every  intelligent  poultry 
keeper  and  the  subject  is  worthy  of  careful  considera- 
tion by  all  progressive  poultry  feeders. 

Every  grain  or  feed-stuff  used  for  poultry  is  discussed 
in  Part  II  and  references  are  given  to  experiments 
conducted  in  the  feeding  of  poultry.  The  information  in 
this  section  on  the  comparative  feeding  value  of  the  dif- 
ferent grains  is  of  considerable  importance  to  all  poultry 
keepers  in  order  to  help  them  make  an  intelligent  selection 
of  feeds  and  to  adapt  their  rations  to  prices  and  available 
supplies  of  feeds,  which  are  constantly  changing.  The 
student  will  also  find  the  references  to  experiments  in 
feeding  poultry  and  also  the  material  in  the  Appendix 
of  this  book  of  great  value. 


PREFACE 

Part  III  is  devoted  to  the  practical  feeding  of  poultry 
and  tells  how  to  feed  poultry,  and  is  the  part  of  greatest 
importance  to  everyone  who  keeps  any  chickens.  The 
readers  who  do  not  care  to  study  into  the  purpose  of  feed- 
ing or  to  learn  why  certain  things  are  done  can  turn  di- 
rect to  this  part  of  the  book  and  select  a  ration  which  will 
give  them  good  results  and  secure  information  on  feeding 
which  is  of  immediate  practical  application.  Successful 
rations  are  given  which  are  in  actual  use  in  different  sec- 
tions of  the  country.  Rations  for  every  class  of  poultry 
keepers  are  included :  for  the  farmers  with  whom  poultry 
is  a  side  issue,  for  the  suburban  or  city  family  who  have 
only  enough  available  space  to  keep  a  few  fowls  and  for 
the  poultryman  who  keeps  chickens  on  a  large  scale. 
Complete  information  and  rations  on  the  commercial 
fattening  of  poultry  as  it  is  conducted  in  the  poultry  fat- 
tening stations  are  also  included. 

The  authors  have  endeavored  to  supply  a  book  on  poul- 
try feeding  that  will  do  for  poultrymen  and  poultry  stu- 
dents what  the  well-known  book  on  "Feeds  and  Feeding" 
by  Henry  and  Morrison  has  so  successfully  done  for 
stockmen  and  students  of  livestock.  The  object  through- 
out this  book  has  been  to  present  all  the  scientific  and 
practical  facts  relating  to  poultry  feeding  in  so  simple  a 
manner  that  anyone  can  understand  and  readily  use  them 
in  his  own  feeding  problems. 

ALFRED  R.  LEE 
HARRY  M.  LAMON. 

Washington,  D.  C.,  1922 

IO 


INTRODUCTION 

PLACE  AND  IMPORTANCE  OF  POULTRY  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Poultry  occupies  a  more  important  place  in  the  life  and 
nourishment  of  the  American  people  than  any  one  kind 
of  livestock.  The  keeping  of  poultry  is  not  confined  to 
extensive  ranches  or  even  to  farms,  but  is  adapted  to  all 
sorts  of  conditions,  ranging  from  the  small  flock  of  hens 
kept  in  a  backyard  or  a  city  lot  with  only  a  few  square 
feet  of  available  land,  through  varying  sizes  of  flocks  kept 
on  practically  all  of  the  general  farms  in  all  sections  of  the 
United  States,  to  large  poultry  farms,  each  keeping  from 
500  to  10,000  or  more  hens.  It  provides  pleasure,  profit 
and  the  opportunity  to  get  absolutely  fresh  table  products 
at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  to  every  class  of  people. 

THE  VALUE  OF   POULTRY   PRODUCTION 

The  estimated  value  of  poultry  products  in  the  United 
States  exceeds  a  billion  dollars  and  the  industry  is  steadily 
growing.  The  population  of  the  United  States  increased 
about  21  per  cent  during  the  census  period  of  1900  to 
1910  while  the  products  from  most  lines  of  livestock  were 
actually  decreasing.  Poultry  products,  however,  increased 
materially  during  that  time,  fowls  showing  an  increase  in 
numbers  of  17  per  cent  while  their  value  increased  48 
per  cent.  During  this  period  eggs  increased  in  numbers 

n 


INTRODUCTION 

23  per  cent  and  in  value  112  per  cent.  In  other  words, 
poultry  and  eggs  are  steadily  occupying  a  more  important 
place  in  the  diet  of  the  American  people  as  the  amount  of 
poultry  products  either  imported  or  exported  is  not  large. 
The  place  which  poultry  products  occupy  in  our  diet  com- 
bined with  the  growing  population  of  this  country  and  its 
constantly  increasing  demand  for  food  products  guar- 
antees a  steady  demand  at  good  prices  for  future  poultry 
and  egg  production  and  allows  for  a  healthy  growth  of 
the  poultry  industry  and  continued  steady  expansion  of 
poultry  farms.  Quality  in  poultry  products  is  being  ap- 
preciated and  paid  for  more  and  more  especially  in  the 
value  of  strictly  fresh  eggs.  The  importance  and  value  of 
eggs  for  human  consumption  have  been  greatly  empha- 
sized in  recent  experiments  in  which  a  soluble  fat  abso- 
lutely essential  to  human  life  and  growth  has  been  found 
in  eggs,  milk  and  certain  glandular  organs  of  animals. 
The  large  poultry  farms  cannot  compete  in  cost  of  pro- 
duction with  the  general  farmer  who  keeps  poultry  as  a 
side  issue  but  they  can  get  a  much  higher  price  for  their 
eggs  by  supplying  eggs  to  the  consumer  while  they  are 
strictly  fresh  and  in  prime  condition.  It  is  this  difference 
in  price  obtained  for  strictly  fresh  eggs  above  the  price  of 
average  receipts  which  gives  the  commercial  egg  farmer 
a  sound  practical  basis  on  which  to  operate  successfully. 
There  is  not  the  same  relative  profit  in  the  production  of 
high  grade  fresh  poultry  on  the  commercial  poultry  farm 
as  poultry  can  also  be  produced  more  cheaply  on  the  gen- 
eral farm  from  which  it  goes  to  the  poultry  packing  sta- 

12 


INTRODUCTION 

tions  and  is  fattened,  held  in  storage  for  any  reasonable 
length  of  time,  and  then  sold  at  nearly  the  same  price  as 
fresh  killed  poultry  products  will  command. 

POULTRY  RAISING  IS  PROFITABLE 

The  bulk  of  the  poultry  is  produced,  and  the  greatest 
opportunity  for  profit  exists,  on  general  farms  especially 
in  the  Central  West  section.  The  leading  states  given  in 
the  order  of  their  value  of  poultry  products  is  as  follows : 
Illinois,  Missouri,  Iowa,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Pennsylvania, 
New  York,  Kansas,  Texas,  Michigan  and  California. 
Poultry  is  kept  in  good  sized  flocks  on  most  every  farm  in 
these  states,  these  flocks  containing  from  25  to  200  hens. 
The  states  of  California,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and 
Pennsylvania  contain  also  a  considerable  number  of  good 
sized  commercial  poultry  farms  which  aid  materially  in 
bringing  up  the  value  of  the  poultry  products  in  these 
states.  Nearly  every  general  farm  could  carry  100  hens 
profitably,  while  on  many  farms  where  some  member  of 
the  family  likes  poultry,  a  much  larger  number  of  fowls 
than  this  can  be  kept  profitably.  Poultry  kept  on  farms 
can  be  fed  to  some  extent  on  unmarketable  grains  and 
will  secure  a  considerable  part  of  their  living  during  the 
growing  .season  from  products  which  would  otherwise  be 
largely  wasted.  Better  feeding  and  management  of  the 
hens  and  care  in  handling  the  poultry  products  would 
give  a  greater  increase  of  profit  from  the  farm  flock  than 
from  most  any  other  branch  of  poultry  raising.  Although 
the  bulk  of  the  poultry  products  will  always  come  from  the 

13 


INTRODUCTION 

flocks  kept  on  general  farms  where  the  range  is  unlimited, 
good  opportunities  to  keep  poultry  profitably  exists  for 
families  which  have  only  a  small  amount  of  available 
space.  These  families  can  keep  fowls  profitably  for  their 
own  use  and  in  addition  sell  any  surplus  products  in  their 
immediate  vicinity  at  the  highest  retail  price.  Garbage 
or  table  scraps  or  waste  products  from  the  garden  will 
materially  aid  in  keeping  down  the  cost  of  feeding  hens 
kept  under  these  conditions. 

Most  of  the  farms  devoted  entirely  to  poultry  are  lo- 
cated in  the  northeastern  section  of  this  country  within 
easy  shipping  distance  of  the  large  cities  and  in  central  or 
southern  California.  Enough  eggs  are  produced  in  Cali- 
fornia so  that  during  the  past  few  years  a  considerable 
number  of  carloads  of  eggs  have  been  shipped  to  New 
York  City  during  the  winter.  The  constant  and  growing 
demand  for  a  high  quality  of  fresh  eggs  has  made  it  pos- 
sible to  operate  these  poultry  farms  at  a  good  profit  al- 
though not  over  10  per  cent  of  the  poultry  and  eggs  pro- 
duced in  this  country  come  from  such  farms.  The  most 
essential  factor  in  the  location  of  these  commercial  farms 
is  nearness  to  a  good  market  where  goods  of  high  quality 
are  appreciated  and  paid  for.  The  soil,  climate  and  other 
factors  must  be  considered  but  are  really  secondary  in  im- 
portance. 


PART  I 
PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  POULTRY 


CHAPTER  I 

COMPOSITION  OF  PLANTS 

How  Plants  Make  Food.  Plants  supply  the  feed  for 
poultry  and  a  brief  description  of  their  composition  and 
growth  is  of  value  in  the  study  of  the  principles  of  poultry 
feeding.  Fourteen  elements  are  commonly  found  in 
plants,  namely,  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  phos- 
phorus, sulphur,  calcium,  potassium,  iron,  magnesium, 
sodium,  chlorin,  silicon  and  manganese.  The  water 
which  is  obtained  from  the  soil  through  the  roots  of  plants 
makes  up  from  75  to  90  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  freshly 
cut  plants.  In  addition  to  the  water  which  they  use  plants 
live  largely  on  carbon  dioxid  drawn  from  the  air. 

Plants  use  an  enormous  volume  of  air  in  getting  this 
carbon  dioxid  as  only  3  to  4  parts  of  carbon  dioxid  are 
found  in  10,000  parts  of  air.  Practically  all  plants  ex- 
cept the  legumes  secure  their  nitrogen  from  the  soil  either 
in  the  form  of  nitrates  or  as  ammonia.  The  legumes  in- 
cluding such  plants  as  clover,  alfalfa,  soybeans  and  cow- 
peas  are  able  to  take  nitrogen  gas  from  the  air  through 
nodular  growth  on  their  roots  which  contain  bacteria. 
Therefore,  the  growing  of  these  legumes  adds  fertility 
directly  to  the  soil  in  the  form  of  nitrogen.  The  mineral 
substances  of  plants  given  in  this  list  of  elements  are  taken 
from  the  soil  in  the  form  of  phosphates,  sulphates,  car- 

17 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

bonates,  nitrates,  chlorides  and  silicates.  Phosphates  are 
present  in  the  leaf  cells  and  in  the  proteins  of  seeds  and 
sulphur  is  found  in  plant  proteins. 

PRODUCTION  OF  CARBOHYDRATES  AND  VEGETABLE  FATS 

The  carbohydrates  consisting  of  carbon  and  water  is  the 
term  used  to  cover  all  the  starches  and  sugars  including  the 
celluloses  and  pentosans.  Chlorophyll  which  gives  the 
green  color  to  plants,  assisted  by  light  and  sunshine,  trans- 
forms carbon  dioxid  and  water  into  compounds  resulting 
in  the  formation  of  these  starches,  sugars  and  mineral 
matter,  all  of  which  represent  stored  up  energy. 

Carbohydrates  constitute  the  bulk  of  all  the  dry  matter 
of  plants.  The  sugars  are  soluble  in  the  plant  juices  and 
pass  freely  to  all  parts  of  the  plant  while  starch  is  not 
directly  soluble  in  plant  juices  but  is  stored  up  in  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  seeds  and  roots.  Starch  is  subject  to 
change  by  a  ferment  or  enzyme  called  diastase  which 
works  with  water  and  changes  the  starch  to  sugar,  in 
which  condition  it  can  be  passed  freely  throughout  the 
plant  structure. 

The  walls  of  the  cell  constituting  the  framework  of  the 
plant  are  made  of  cellulose  with  which  is  also  found  some 
mineral  matter  or  ash.  The  pentosans  are  found  with  the 
cellulose  in  the  more  fibrous  or  woody  parts  of  the  plants 
and  make  up  a  considerable  part  of  the  roughages  and 
feeds  containing  a  high  per  cent  of  fiber.  Vegetable  fats 
and  oils  which  are  stored  especially  in  the  seeds  of  certain 
plants  are  made  of  these  same  elements  as  the  carbohy- 

iS 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  POULTRY 

drates  but  with  a  larger  proportion  of  carbon  and  a  larger 
number  of  atoms  in  the  compounds.  They  give  off  more 
heat  or  energy  than  the  carbohydrates  on  account  of  their 
greater  carbon  content. 

PRODUCTION  OF  NITROGENOUS  AND  MINERAL 
COMPOUNDS 

The  carbohydrates  and  fats  are  combined  in  the  plant 
with  nitrogen,  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  elements  obtained 
from  the  nitrates  and  mineral  salts  in  the  soil,  to  form 
more  complex  compounds  called  crude  proteins.  Crude 
proteins  consists  of  two  general  groups — proteins  and 
amids,  and  include  all  nitrogenous  compounds  of  the 
plants.  There  is  approximately  16  per  cent  of  nitrogen 
in  crude  protein.  The  amids  are  the  simpler  forms  of 
crude  proteins  from  which  the  more  complex  proteins  are 
constructed.  They  are  soluble  in  plant  juices  and  circu- 
late freely  throughout  the  plant.  Our  knowledge  of  the 
proteins  is  still  in  the  experimental  stage  but  we  do  know 
that  they  are  very  complex  and  many  consist  of  a  large 
number  of  different  combinations.  Recent  feeding  ex- 
periments with  rats,  guinea  pigs  and  rabbits  tend  to  show 
very  great  differences  in  the  feeding  value  of  the  different 
proteins  while  some  of  the  proteins  have  been  found  far 
more  essential  to  life  than  others.  The  proteins  and 
amids  may  be  changed  one  to  the  other,  the  same  as 
starches  and  sugars  are  changed,  according  to  the  needs 
of  the  plants. 

Crude  protein  is  found  mostly  in  the  leaves,  seeds  and 

19 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

reproductive  parts  of  the  plants  and  very  little  of  this 
material  is  contained  in  the  plant  fiber.  All  changes  in 
the  plant  depend  primarily  upon  their  nitrogenous  or 
protein  compounds.  Mineral  matter  or  ash  is  also  neces- 
sary in  this  changing  of  food  materials  and  in  the  growth 
of  young  plants.  It  is  found  especially  in  the  leaves  and 
fibrous  parts  of  the  plants.  Thus  plants  which  furnish 
the  feed  for  animals,  form  these  compounds  from  the 
earth  and  air  through  the  energy  of  the  sun,  and  supply 
animals  with  the  sun's  heat  and  energy  through  plant 
life. 

FACTORS  INFLUENCING  THE  NUTRITIVE  VALUE  OF  FEEDS 

The  value  of  feeds  is  somewhat  affected  by  the  climatic 
and  soil  conditions  and  also  by  the  preparation  of  the  feed. 
Feeds  produced  in  different  sections  of  this  country  show 
somewhat  different  analyses  while  the  value  of  roughages 
and  green  crops  are  especially  influenced  by  their  stage 
of  maturity.  The  crude  protein  content  of  cereals  is  quite 
variable  in  different  sections  as  is  also  the  fat  and  fiber 
content  while  the  nitrogen  free  extract  is  less  variable 
than  these  other  constituents.  Because  of  this  variation 
it  is  advisable  whenever  possible  to  know  the  analysis  of 
grains  and  feeds  as  it  effects  their  feeding  and  purchase 
value. 

In  general,  grinding,  cracking  and  rolling  of  grains 
does  not  increase  their  digestibility  except  in  the  case  of 
very  hard  feeds  which  would  otherwise  pass  through  the 
body  in  a  whole  form.  Fowls  are  provided  with  a  very 

20 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  POULTRY 

powerful  grinding  organism  (the  gizzard)  and  can  utilize 
most  hard  grains  very  efficiently.  Their  digestive  organs 
need  some  hard  grains  to  keep  them  in  the  best  of  condi- 
tion. Roughage  and  fiber  are  not  utilized  nearly  as  effi- 
ciently by  poultry  as  by  most  livestock  for  which  reason 
sprouting,  soaking  and  steaming  of  grains  and  roughages 
may  be  especially  advantageous  for  poultry.  Fermenting 
is  not  considered  advantageous  in  poultry  feeding  as  it 
shows  no  marked  advantage  over  soaking  or  sprouting 
and  may  furnish  ideal  conditions  for  the  growth  of  un- 
desirable and  harmful  organisms  in  the  feed.  The  sprout- 
ing of  grains,  especially  of  oats,  and  to  a  less  extent  of 
barley,  is  carried  on  extensively  to  supply  palatable  green 
matter  for  fowls.  Some  poultrymen  soak  all  oats  and 
barley  before  feeding  but  the  usual  method  is  to  feed  all  of 
these  grains  without  soaking  or  sprouting.  Exceptionally 
hard  grains,  such  as  the  ordinary  field  or  pea  bean  used 
for  human  consumption,  should  be  soaked  before  feed- 
ing. 

The  steaming  of  clover  and  alfalfa  hay  renders  these 
substances  much  more  palatable  for  fowls  but  if  these 
feeds  are  used  in  a  finely  ground  form  it  does  not  pay 
to  steam  them.  In  general  it  probably  pays  to  steam, 
sprout  or  soak  grains  or  feeds  of  which  the  palatability 
for  fowls  is  materially  improved.  Chickens  to  be  fat- 
tened for  a  brief  period  can  be  fed  to  advantage  entirely  on 
very  finely  ground  grains  on  which  they  will  make  greater 
gains  than  from  feed  which  is  more  coarsely  ground  or 
that  is  in  a  whole  or  cracked  condition.  Cooking  usually 

21 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

lowers  the  digestibility  of  feeds  except  of  potatoes  and 
other  starchy  tubers,  but  may  improve  their  palatability. 
These  are  the  only  feeds  used  by  poultry  which  it  pays  to 
cook.  The  use  of  salt  and  the  addition  of  lactic  acid 
(the  chief  acid  of  milk)  does  not  directly  improve  di- 
gestibility but  has  a  beneficial  effect  on  the  fowls'  appetite 
and  may  stimulate  greater  consumption  of  feed. 


22 


CHAPTER  II 


COMPOSITION  AND  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  FOWL  AND  OF  EGGS 

Composition  of  a  Fowl  and  of  Eggs.  Animals  and 
poultry  are  composed  of  water,  protein,  fat  and  mineral 
matter  which  elements  also  make  up  plants,  but  protein 
and  fat  make  up  most  of  the  animal  body.  The  amount 
of  carbohydrates  present  in  animals  is  very  small,  while 
they  make  up  most  of  the  dry  matter  in  plant  life  as  plants 
contain  only  a  small  amount  of  protein.  The  average 
analysis  of  fowl  and  eggs  is  as  follows  according  to 
analyses  made  at  the  New  York  Experiment  Station  and 
by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture : 

TABLE  I 

Composition  of  Poultry  and  Eggs 


Water 

Protein 

Fat 

Ash 

Shell 

Leghorn  Hen  

55.8 

21.6 

17.0 

3.8 

Leghorn  Pullet   

cc  4 

21.2 

18.0 

7.4 

Mature  Capon   

00  7 
41  6 

10.4 

77.0 

7.7 

Total  Egg  (with  shell) 
Eggs  (dry  matter  aside 
from  shell  
Egg  Yolk   

657 

1  1.4 

49-8 
IK.  7 

8.9 
38.6 

7-1.  1 

0.8 

3-5 
i.i 

1  1.4 

Egg  Albumen  

862 

12.^ 

O.2 

0.6 

Dry  Matter  of  Fowls' 
Body            

48O 

38.5 

8.9 

Dry  Matter  of  Entire 
Egg  with  Shell  

33.3 

29-5 

35-6 

POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

The  ash  of  the  egg  aside  from  the  shell,  contains  53.7 
per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid.  The  analysis  of  the  dry  mat- 
ter of  the  egg,  aside  from  the  shell,  is  very  similar  to  the 
dry  matter  of  the  fowl.  The  difference  in  analysis  be- 
tween the  capon  and  the  hen  is  largely  due  to  the  larger 
per  cent  of  fat  in  the  capon.  The  high  per  cent  of  protein 
in  both  poultry  and  in  eggs  shows  the  necessity  for  sup- 
plying protein  in  a  considerably  greater  quantity  than  is 
furnished  by  plants.  Protein  is  found  throughout  the 
body  in  the  blood,  muscles,  connective  tissues,  etc.  Fats 
are  found  in  fowls  as  body  fat,  in  the  bones  and  in  eggs. 
The  same  ash  materials  found  in  animals  are  also  present 
in  plants. 

PARTS  TAKEN  BY  MINERAL  SALTS 

The  mineral  salts  in  addition  to  building  up  bone  struc- 
ture, play  an  important  part  in  connection  with  the  diges- 
tive acids  and  changes  in  the  nutrients.  Sodium  and 
chlorine  are  absolutely  essential  to  animal  life  as  the 
gastric  juice  in  the  body  contains  free  hydrochloric  acid. 
Common  .salt  (chemically  one  part  sodium  to  two  parts 
chlorine)  supplies  this  sodium  and  chlorine  and  its  use 
improves  the  appetite  and  increases  the  flow  of  digestive 
juices.  Lime  and  phosphoric  acid  are  the  two  minerals 
present  in  the  greatest  amount  in  the  body  as  they  make 
up  the  skeleton  and  constitute  about  80  per  cent  of  the 
mineral  matter.  Over  35  per  cent  of  the  dry  matter  in 
eggs  (shells  included)  is  ash  or  mineral  matter  while  10 
per  cent  of  the  body  of  the  fowl  is  mineral  matter  con- 

24 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  POULTRY 

sisting  largely  of  phosphate  of  lime.  Potassium  and  iron 
are  two  other  essential  mineral  elements,  the  former  being 
found  especially  in  the  cell  walls,  muscles,  and  blood, 
and  the  latter  in  the  red  coloring  matter  of  the  blood. 

The  feeding  tests  which  have  been  tried  with  animals 
usually  show  sufficient  minerals  in  their  normal  feed, 
but  animals  are  fed  largely  on  forage  crops  and  all  such 
plants  containing  a  considerable  amount  of  minerals. 
Many  poultry,  especially  those  kept  confined,  are  fed  more 
largely  on  grain  with  a  very  limited  amount  of  green  or 
forage  crops,  and  therefore  the  relative  importance  of  sup- 
plying mineral  matter  is  much  greater  with  poultry  than 
with  animals.  Common  salt  (sodium  chloride),  ground 
bone  (phosphate  of  lime),  oyster  shell  (carbonate  of 
lime),  are  the  mineral  matters  commonly  supplied  directly 
to  the  fowls.  Milk,  meat  scrap  containing  bone,  and  green 
feeds  all  contain  considerable  mineral  matter  and  are  ex- 
cellent constituents  of  a  poultry  ration. 

ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOWL 

The  digestive  process  of  poultry  is  rather  similar  to  that 
of  animals  with  some  minor  exceptions.  Fowls  have  a 
beak  but  no  teeth,  .so  have  to  swallow  grains  whole,  but 
can  tear  some  kinds  of  feeds  into  fragments.  The 
esophagus  or  gullet  is  large  and  can  be  greatly  expanded. 
Fowls  have  a  distinct  reservoir  or  crop  attached  to  and 
acting  as  a  part  of  the  esophagus  while  ducks  and  geese 
have  no  distinct  crop  but  are  provided  with  a  dilated  sec- 
tion of  the  esophagus.  The  food  passes  directly  into  the 

25 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

crop  in  fowls  where  it  is  temporarily  retained  and  softened 
with  water  and  a  very  small  amount  of  saliva.  The  sali- 
vary glands  of  poultry  are  very  small  and  are  thought  not 


1.  Skull. 
$.  Eye  cavity. 
3.  Nasal  cavity. 
4.  Upper  mandible. 
6.  Lower  mandible. 
6.  Vertebrae  of  the  neck. 
7.  Digit. 
8,  Booea  of  hand. 
0*  Digit. 

10.  Ulna. 
11.  Radius. 
12.  Humerus. 
13.  Backbone. 
14.  Ribs. 
15.  Scapula. 
10.  Clavicles   (meny- 
thought). 
17.  Acetabulum. 

18.  Isohiura. 
19.  Pygostyle. 
20.  Femur  bone.  '[bone. 
21.  Sternum  or  breast. 
22.  Tibia. 
23.  Tareo-metarsus. 
24.  Spur. 
25.  Back  toe. 
26.  Toes. 

FIG.  i.    ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOWL 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  POULTRY 

to  have  any  very  important  influence  in  the  digestion  of 
food.  The  crop  in  pigeons  of  both  sexes  is  divided  into 
two  parts  and  secretes  a  milky  fluid  for  a  few  days  after 
their  young  are  hatched  which  is  used  to  feed  their 
squabs. 

DIGESTION  AND  ASSIMILATION  OF  FOOD 

The  food  passes  from  the  crop  into  the  preventriculus 
or  true  stomach  where  it  is  acted  upon  by  a  gastric  or 
stomach  juice.  Gastric  juice  is  an  acid  fluid  which  con- 
tains enzymes  and  acids.  The  chief  ferment  of  gastric 
juice  is  pepsin  which  in  the  presence  of  acids  changes  the 
protein  into  soluble  nutrients.  Thence  the  food  goes  into 
the  gizzard  which  is  a  powerful  grinding  organ.  This  has  a 
strong,  rough  lining  in  which  the  food  is  finely  ground  by 
the  action  of  small  pieces  of  sharp  sand  or  gravel  called 
grit. 

The  small  intestines  continue  the  digestive  system  from 
the  gizzard  and  are  looped  around  an  elongated  gland 
called  the  pancreas.  Next  comes  the  liver  and  the  bile, 
the  former  being  quite  a  large  organ.  The  pancreas 
secretes  juices  which  are  essential  digestive  fluids  and 
these  act  upon  the  protein,  fats  and  carbohydrates,  reduc- 
ing them  to  simpler  food  forms.  The  liver  has  very  im- 
portant functions  in  regulating  and  assisting  the  digestive 
processes  by  acting  as  a  regulator  on  the  carbohydrates. 
The  carbohydrates  are  stored  up  temporarily  in  the  form 
of  glycogen  through  the  action  of  the  liver  and  supplied 
to  the  system  when  needed  for  nourishment.  The  food 

27 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

after  being  digested,  changed  and  regulated  by  these 
various  organs,  passes  into  the  blood  directly  from  the  in- 
testines and  is  circulated  and  used  to  repair  waste  and 
rebuild  tissue  throughout  the  body.  These  blood  veins 
cover  the  intestines  and  thus  draw  their  nourishment  di- 
rectly from  the  intestines.  The  nitrogen  is  probably  ex- 
creted almost  entirely  through  the  kidneys  as  urine. 
Water  is  given  off  both  through  the  urine  and  through  the 
lungs.  Carbon  is  eliminated  largely  by  oxidation  in  the 
lungs  as  carbon  dioxide.  The  droppings  consist  of  indi- 
gestible food  nutrients  which  pass  out  through  the  body. 
The  bile  is  a  secretion  of  the  liver  which  does  not  contain 
any  ferments  or  have  any  direct  digestive  action,  but  co- 
operates with  the  pancreatic  juices  in  the  digestion  of  food 
by  providing  the  proper  medium  and  necessary  conditions. 

STRUCTURE  OF  THE  EGG 

An  egg  consists  of  about  57  per  cent  albumen,  33  per 
cent  yolk,  and  10  per  cent  shell.  The  yolk  is  supported 
near  the  center  of  the  egg  in  dense  albumen  which  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  layer  of  finer  or  more  liquid  albumen.  All 
of  this  is  enclosed  in  two  thin  membranes  commonly  re- 
ferred to  as  the  skin  of  the  egg  which  lie  directly  under 
the  egg  shell.  These  membranes  separate  at  the  large  end 
of  the  egg  and  form  a  small  air  cell,  which  increases  in 
size  with  the  age  of  the  egg.  The  egg  shell  is  a  hard 
substance  consisting  largely  of  lime.  The  size  of  the  eggs 
from  different  breeds  and  from  different  strains  of  the 
same  breed  varies  considerably.  It  is  not  influenced  by 

28 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  POULTRY 

the  feed  unless  an  abnormal  ration  is  used,  but  is  de- 
pendent entirely  on  the  individual  and  its  breeding. 

The  average  hen's  egg  weighs  2  ounces,  making  a  dozen 
eggs  weigh  il/2  pounds.  In  size  the  egg  is  about  2.27 
inches  long  and  1.72  inches  in  diameter  at  the  widest  point. 
The  first  eggs  laid  by  pullets  are  under  the  normal  size, 
but  the  .size  increases  materially  during  the  first  few  weeks 
of  laying.  Yearlings  and  older  hens  lay  slightly  larger 
eggs  than  do  pullets.  Eggs  laid  in  the  spring  are  slightly 
heavier  than  eggs  produced  at  any  other  season  of  the 
year. 


29 


CHAPTER  III 


ECONOMICAL  PRODUCTION  OF  EGGS  AND  OF  POULTRY  FLESH 

Poultry  ranks  high  as  an  economical  producer  of  food 
for  human  consumption,  both  in  the  production  of  eggs 
and  of  poultry  flesh,  being  next  to  hogs,  far  better  than 
either  sheep  or  beef  cattle  but  not  as  good  as  dairy  cows. 
Poultry  produce  flesh  and  edible  solids  much  more  eco- 
nomically than  sheep  or  steers  but  not  as  economically  as 
the  pig,  partly  because  of  the  lard  produced  by  the  pig. 
Eggs  are  produced  as  economically  as  cheese  and  consid- 
erably more  so  than  butter.  The  following  table  gives  the 
amount  of  animal  food  produced  by  farm  animals  and 
poultry  from  100  Ibs.  of  digestible  matter  consumed : 

TABLE  II 

Relative  Production  of  Animal  Food  by  Animals  and  Fowls 


Animal 

Marketable 
Product 

Edible 
Solids 

Cow  (milk) 

I  -an  o 

18  o 

Pig   (dressed)    

25.0 

iS-6 

Poultry   (eggs  from  Leghorn  pullets)... 
Cow  (cheese)        ...       .  .       

41.2 
148 

*j.^ 
9.6 

04 

Poultry  (dressed) 

28l 

0  ^ 

Poultry  (eggs  from  general  purpose  pul- 
lets)     

20.^ 

6.9 

Cow    (butter)    

?  ° 
6.4 

5-4 

Steer  (dressed)       

8.3 

2.8 

Sheen  (dressed)    . 

7.o 

2.6 

PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  POULTRY 

The  figures  on  eggs  used  in  this  table  are  based  on  the 
results  secured  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  on 
their  experimental  poultry  farm.  The  figures  on  dressed 
poultry  are  based  on  experiments  reported  by  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture  in  their  bulletins  on  fattening 
poultry.  The  rest  of  the  table  is  from  the  book  entitled, 
"Feeds  and  Feeding"  by  Henry  and  Morrison.  Eggs 
rank  quite  high  in  marketable  products  but  not  so  high 
based  on  their  edible  solids,  which  relative  condition  is 
also  true  of  poultry  but  to  a  less  degree.  Considering  that 
the  bulk  of  the  poultry  in  the  country  is  raised  on  the 
general  farm  where  they  are  able  to  secure  a  considerable 
part  of  their  living  from  waste  products  and  also  that 
poultry  like  live-stock,  restore  fertility  to  the  soil,  the 
economical  production  of  poultry  products  in  this  country 
is  readily  apparent. 

Poultry  easily  holds  first  place  in  the  production  of  ani- 
mals products  for  home  conditions,  being  adapted  to  a 
great  variety  of  conditions  where  live-stock  cannot  be  kept 
economically.  These  products  are  raised  as  a  side  issue 
in  villages  and  cities  where  considerable  waste  feed  is 
utilized  and  where  the  labor  item  is  negligible.  They  are 
not  only  most  easily  kept  but  their  products  are  also  best 
adapted  for  use  in  the  home  in  a  fresh  condition.  Eggs 
are  also  high  in  the  soluble  fat  product  now  recognized  as 
being  essential  to  life  and  growth,  and  which  is  only 
found  commonly  in  eggs,  milk  and  certain  glandular  or- 
gans of  animals. 

Figures  kept  at  the  Government  poultry  farm  by  the 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington  show 
that  Leghorn  pullets  consumed  4.8  pounds  of  feed  in  pro- 
ducing a  dozen  eggs,  and  general  purpose  pullets  ate  6.7 
pounds.  The  feed  consumed  by  older  hens  was  much 
greater,  being  5.5  pounds  for  the  Leghorn  yearling  hens 
and  9.6  for  the  yearling  hens  of  the  general  purpose 
breeds.  Tests  by  the  same  Department  on  fattening 
chicks  or  producing  flesh  in  the  Central  West  show  that 
it  took  3.26  pounds  of  grain  to  make  a  pound  of  gain 
in  weight.  Buttermilk  was  used  with  this  grain  at  the 
rate  of  one  and  a  half  pounds  of  buttermilk  to  one  pound 
of  grain.  In  arriving  at  the  figures  used  in  the  table 
on  poultry  and  eggs,  the  grains  were  considered  76  per 
cent  digestible  and  the  milk  82  per  cent  digestible.  Of 
edible  solids  23.3  per  cent  were  secured  out  of  eggs  while 
poultry  gave  33  per  cent  of  edible  solids. 

PLACE  AND  IMPORTANCE  OF   POULTRY  FARMS 

Poultry  farms  for  the  production  of  market  poultry 
products  are  gradually  taking  a  more  important  place 
in  this  country,  and  are  a  factor  of  considerable  impor- 
tance. It  is  conservatively  estimated  that  90  per  cent  of 
the  poultry  and  eggs  are  produced  on  the  general  farms 
and  from  small  flocks  kept  in  the  villages  and  cities  in  this 
country,  leaving  only  10  per  cent  produced  on  poultry 
farms.  Both  poultry  and  eggs  can  be  produced  more 
cheaply  under  general  farm  conditions  than  is  possible 
on  poultry  farms.  The  general  farm  poultry  products, 
however,  rarely  reach  the  consumer  while  they  are  in  a 

32 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  POULTRY 

strictly  fresh  condition,  especially  where  they  are  shipped 
to  the  more  thickly  settled  parts  of  this  country.  For 
this  reason  commercial  poultry  farms  devoted  to  the  pro- 
duction of  high  class  eggs  are  able  to  operate  profitably. 

While  strictly  fresh  eggs  have  a  value  and  quality 
considerably  exceeding  eggs  which  are  not  fresh,  poultry 
produced  on  the  farms  can  be  marketed  through  the  ordi- 
nary channels,  put  into  storage  and  sold  in  any  section 
of  the  country  and  at  any  season  in  direct  competition 
with  fresh  goods.  Many  chickens  and  hens  are  shipped 
alive  from  the  farming  sections  to  the  larger  eastern 
cities.  Therefore  the  production  of  poultry  flesh  as  a 
specialty  on  poultry  farms  only  offers  in  a  few  local  sec- 
tions the  opportunities  that  exist  in  the  production  of  mar- 
ket eggs.  The  market  poultry  farms  producing  eggs 
have  been  developed  largely  in  the  northeastern  section 
of  this  country  within  easy  shipping  distance  of  New 
York,  Boston  and  Philadelphia  and  to  a  less  extent  near 
some  of  the  larger  cities  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  Central 
West  and  and  northern  part  of  the  Southeast. 

Another  section  in  which  egg  farming  is  a  big  industry 
is  on  the  Pacific  coast,  especially  in  central  and  southern 
California.  Climatic  conditions  appear  to  be  especially 
favorable  for  egg  farming  there  and  the  industry  has  been 
developed  to  the  point  where  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
dozens  of  eggs  are  shipped  annually  to  New  York,  while 
a  few  go  to  other  eastern  cities.  The  constant  growth  of 
the  larger  cities  in  this  country  gives  the  egg  farmer  assur- 
ance of  a  constant  demand  for  eggs  at  profitable  prices. 

33 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

MEAT  VERSUS  EGG  PRODUCTION  ON  POULTRY  FARMS 

A  large  amount  of  broilers  and  of  roasters  are  produced 
as  a  side  issue  on  poultry  farms  in  the  rearing  of  pullets 
for  egg  production  and  these  sell  at  a  fair  price,  especially 
those  produced  early  in  the  season.  Many  people  have 
been  attracted  by  the  high  prices  paid  for  broilers  in  the 
winter  months  and  have  tried  to  make  the  rearing  of 
chickens,  at  other  than  the  natural  breeding  season  a  suc- 
cess, but  without  permanent  results.  Undoubtedly  the 
reason  for  this  is  the  high  cost  and  difficulty  of  rearing 
chicks  during  the  winter  months,  the  competition  with  the 
broilers  produced  as  a  side  issue  on  egg  farms  and  es- 
pecially the  competition  with  cold  storage  broilers  and 
roasters. 

Chickens  are  produced  on  general  farms  during  the 
spring  months  at  low  costs,  are  fattened  and  dressed  in  an 
attractive  manner  and  kept  in  cold  storage  until  needed 
for  consumption,  and  when  sold  are  in  first  class  condi- 
tion and  compete  directly  with  freshly  killed  stock. 
Chickens  can  be  kept  in  cold  storage  at  very  low  tempera- 
tures so  that  the  depreciation  in  their  quality  is  very 
.slight  while  eggs  cannot  be  kept  in  the  shell  at  any  such 
low  temperatures  and  do  not  compete  to  anywhere  near 
the  same  extent  with  the  strictly  fresh  product. 

THE  SOFT  ROASTER   INDUSTRY 

The  soft  roaster  industry  as  developed  in  the  South 
Shore  of  Massachusetts,  and  in  Pennsylvania  and  New 

34 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  POULTRY 

Jersey  near  Philadelphia,  and  the  growing  of  green  ducks 
are  the  two  exceptions  to  the  general  lack  of  profit  in  pro- 
ducing poultry  meat  as  a  specialty.  Both  of  these  indus- 
tries have  proved  very  profitable  in  a  limited  way  and 
have  been  more  profitable  than  most  other  lines  of  poultry 
raising.  The  opportunities  and  markets  for  both  of  these 
industries  are  very  limited.  The  soft  roaster  industry 
involved  the  rearing  of  chicks  in  the  fall  and  winter,  the 
caponizing  of  the  males  and  the  sale  of  both  males  and 
females  in  the  late  winter  and  spring  months.  The  Bos- 
ton market  handled  the  bulk  of  this  product  at  high  prices. 
During  the  war  period  of  1917  to  1919  this  business  was 
practically  discontinued  and  it  has  not  been  developed 
much  since.  A  similar  industry  was  conducted  around 
Philadelphia  but  the  rearing  of  the  birds  was  on  a  smaller 
scale  in  that  section. 


DUCK  FARMING 

The  production  of  "green  ducks"  on  Long  Island, 
N.  Y.,  and  somewhat  in  Massachusetts  and  Pennsylvania, 
involves  the  rearing  of  young  ducks  for  the  market  during 
the  late  winter  and  spring  months,  these  ducklings  being 
forced  for  rapid  growth  and  sold  when  they  are  10  to  12 
weeks  old.  At  that  age  with  these  conditions,  these  duck- 
lings will  weigh  nearly  as  much  as  an  ordinary  duck 
6  or  7  months  old.  New  York  is  the  only  big  market  for 
this  product,  although  a  considerable  number  of  these 
ducks  are  sold  in  Boston  and  some  other  eastern  cities. 

35 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

COMMERCIAL    POULTRY    FATTENING 

Commercial  poultry  fattening  has  been  developed  to  a 
large  extent  in  the  poultry  producing  sections  of  this 
country  where  the  chickens  are  raised  largely  on  general 
farms  and  have  to  be  shipped  long  distances  to  market. 
This  work  has  been  developed  at  a  considerable  profit 
in  the  Central  West  and  .somewhat  but  to  a  less  extent  in 
the  northern  section  of  the  South.  Many  of  the  poultry 
fattening  stations  now  have  a  feeding  capacity  of  over 
20,000  chickens  at  one  time.  The  possibilities  of  profit 
depend  on  a  great  many  conditions  but  the  general  farm 
chickens  usually  come  to  market  in  a  thin  and  unfinished 
condition  making  a  brief  fattening  period  in  a  fattening 
station  reasonably  profitable.  The  fattening  stations  may 
be  developed  in  connection  with  the  purchase  of  eggs  alone 
or  small  stations  are  often  developed  in  connection  with 
the  purchase  of  eggs  and  of  milk  products. 

The  object  of  fattening  chickens  is  to  increase  weight 
and  improve  quality.  The  fat  in  growing  chickens  is  de- 
posited as  tissue  between  the  muscular  fibres  making  the 
meat  tender  and  juicy  as  well  as  improving  its  flavor  and 
digestibility.  This  fat  on  an  especially  highly  fattened 
chicken  will  be  deposited  directly  beneath  the  skin,  es- 
pecially on  the  back,  while  in  mature  fowls,  more  par- 
ticularly hens,  body  fat  is  also  freely  stored  about  the  in- 
ternal organs.  The  percentage  of  gain  in  weight  in  fat- 
tening chickens  is  in  inverse  proportion  to  the  weight  of 
the  chickens ;  the  smaller  chickens  easily  making  the  great 
est  percentage  gains.  The  most  profitable  gains  and 

36 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  POULTRY 

those  greatest  in  proportion  to  the  size  are  made  in  the 
younger  chickens  weighing  from  i1/*  to  2  pounds  apiece. 
Hens  which  have  been  reasonably  well  fed  are  usually  in 
good  flesh  and  are  therefore  not  especially  fattened.  The 
gains  made  by  hens  are  much  less  than  those  made  by 
growing  chickens  as  the  latter  gain  weight  both  by  putting 
on  fat  and  by  the  growth  of  the  body  structure. 

Rations  containing  a  greater  percentage  of  carbohy- 
drates and  less  protein  are  used  in  fattening  the  hens,  the 
chicks  requiring  a  larger  per  cent  of  protein  because  of 
the  growth  that  occurs  during  the  fattening  period.  But- 
termilk or  skim  milk  is  used  in  mixing  all  fattening  rations 
and  is  the  one  ingredient  considered  absolutely  essential 
to  commercial  success.  Milk  makes  up  from  50  to  70 
per  cent  of  the  fattening  ration.  It  is  easily  digested  and 
contains  all  of  the  elements  essential  to  the  maintenance  of 
life  and  to  growth.  Its  use  stimulates  the  appetite,  aids 
digestion  and  keeps  the  digestive  organs  of  the  chicken 
in  good  condition.  The  milk  bleaches  the  flesh  of  the 
chickens,  especially  those  on  this  feed  for  two  weeks  or 
longer,  and  the  bleached  appearance  adds  materially  to 
the  market  value  of  the  chicken.  The  rest  of  the  ration 
consists  of  grains  very  finely  ground  to  make  them  readily 
digestible.  Usually  the  chickens  are  fed  a  very  forcing 
ration  for  a  couple  of  weeks  to  get  them  in  a  prime  mar- 
ket condition. 

The  greatest  gains  are  made  in  the  early  stages  of  fat- 
tening, the  gains  usually  decreasing  toward  the  end  of  the 
fattening  period.  Increase  in  weight  is  greatly  influenced 

37 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

by  the  size  of  the  chickens  and  the  weather  conditions. 
Hot  weather  in  the  summer  makes  conditions  in  the  fat- 
tening stations  unfavorable,  while  wet,  cold  weather  in 
the  fall  is  also  undesirable.  The  fattening  season  usually 
runs  from  August  i  to  November  I,  depending  upon  the 
size  of  the  chickens  and  the  market  demand. 

DRESSED  WEIGHT  OF  POULTRY 

The  shrinkage  after  killing  and  picking  without  draw- 
ing (only  blood  and  feathers  removed)  averages  about 
11.5  per  cent  in  the  fattening  stations  for  the  broilers, 
the  shrinkage  increasing  gradually  with  the  size  of  the 
chickens  to  15  per  cent  for  those  averaging  about  3^/2 
pounds  in  weight  With  hens  the  shrinkage  is  greater 
than  on  smaller  chicks,  averaging  13  per  cent.  Chickens 
which  are  especially  fattened  show  a  slightly  lower  shrink- 
age when  killed  and  picked  than  do  those  not  fattened. 
In  experiments  conducted  at  the  Pennsylvania  State  Col- 
lege (Bulletin  87,  Pennsylvania  State  College)  White 
Wyandotte  Cockerels  gave  60.99  Per  cen^  °f  their  live 
weight  as  flesh  and  8.97  per  cent  as  feathers,  7.78  as 
head  and  feet;  7.42  as  bones  of  the  body;  6.78  as  intes- 
tines; 4.49  as  giblets  and  3.57  as  blood.  White  Wyan- 
dotte Pullets  gave  65.45  per  cent  of  flesh,  6.07  as  feathers, 
7.75  as  head  and  feet,  6.29  as  bones  of  body,  6.62  as  in- 
testines, 4.64  as  giblets  and  3.20  as  blood.  White  Leghorn 
Cockerels  gave  56.75  per  cent  flesh,  and  White  Leghorn 
pullets  58.67  per  cent  flesh. 

Pullets  have  a  larger  per  cent  of  edible  flesh  than  cock- 

38 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  POULTRY 

erels  of  the  general  purpose  or  medium  sized  breeds.  The 
per  cent  of  flesh  from  poultry  is  lower  than  from  hogs 
and  beef  cattle.  Wyandottes  dress  out  considerably  bet- 
ter than  do  the  light  egg  breeds  (Leghorns). 


39 


CHAPTER  IV 

FEEDING  STANDARDS  AND  THE  EFFECT  OF  DIFFERENT 
NUTRIENTS 

Measuring  Feed  Values  for  Animals.  The  usefulness 
of  different  feeds  for  animals  is  measured  by  determining 
the  per  cent  of  total  crude  protein,  nitrogen  free  extract, 
fiber,  and  fat  digested  by  the  animals.  Feeding  tests  have 
been  made,  and  quite  complete  feeding  standards  have 
been  prepared  for  animals  to  determine  the  amount  of 
digestible  nutrients  required  to  maintain  the  life  processes 
and  in  addition  to  provide  for  work,  for  the  production 
of  milk,  for  growth  and  for  fattening.  The  first  feeding 
standard  was  based  on  total  rather  than  digestible  nu- 
trients and  was  proposed  in  1859,  and  the  first  complete 
standard  based  on  digestible  nutrients  was  proposed  by 
Dr.  Wolff  in  1864  which  resulted  later  in  the  Wolff- 
Lehman  feeding  standards. 

Numerous  feeding  experiments  conducted  since  that 
time  have  led  to  the  use  of  several  other  standards  which 
are  more  accurate.  Experiments  with  a  respiration  ap- 
paratus and  calorimeter  by  Kellner  and  Zuntz  and  also  by 
Armsby  show  that  the  energy  required  in  eating  and  di- 
gesting feed  must  be  subtracted  from  the  total  available 
digestible  energy  to  secure  the  true  net  value  of  the  feed. 
These  tables  show  the  amount  of  total  dry  matter,  diges- 

40 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  POULTRY 

tible  protein,  and  energy  value  in  feeds;  the  amount  re- 
quired for  different  animals  and  are  apparently  more  cor- 
rect than  the  old  standards.  All  these  standards  and  the 
various  multiplications  while  not  absolutely  accurate,  have 
proven  to  be  of  great  value  in  the  feeding  of  animals. 

HOW  FEEDS  ARE  ANALYZED 

The  chemist  finds  how  much  water  there  is  m  a  feed  by 
using  and  drying  out  at  a  high  temperature  all  the  water 
from  a  finely  divided  sample  of  the  product.  This  sample 
is  then  burned  and  only  the  ash  or 'mineral  matter  re- 
mains. In  determining  the  crude  protein,  the  nitrogen 
content  of  the  feed  is  found  and  the  result  multiplied  by 
6.25  since  about  16  per  cent  of  plant  protein  is  nitrogen. 
The  fiber  is  the  product  that  remains  after  a  sample  of  the 
feed  has  been  boiled  successively  in  a  weak  acid  and  in  an 
alkali  and  the  dissolved  matter  washed  out.  The  part  of 
the  feed  which  will  dissolve  in  ether  is  called  the  ether 
extract  or  fat.  The  carbohydrates  are  made  up  of  the  ni- 
trogen free  extracts  and  the  fiber,  the  nitrogen  free  extract 
being  determined  by  securing  the  difference  between  the 
total  dry  matter  in  the  feed,  and  the  combined  amount  of 
the  ash,  crude  protein,  fiber  and  fat. 

DIFFERENCE  IN  VALUE  AND  IN   THE  USE  OF   FEED 
NUTRIENTS 

While  the  nitrogen  free  extract  and  the  fiber  together 
make  up  the  carbohydrates,  the  nitrogen  free  extract  is 
more  digestible  and  has  a  greater  feeding  value  than  the 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

fiber.  Protein  of  animal  origin  has  been  found  to  have 
a  greater  feed  value  for  poultry  than  vegetable  proteins 
while  in  experiments  with  animals,  proteins  have  been 
found  to  be  very  different  in  their  feeding  values.  The 
flesh  forming  material  in  the  feed  is  furnished  by  the 
protein  which  is  essential  in  the  production  of  lean  meat, 
eggs,  feathers,  muscles,  etc.  It  may  also,  if  fed  in  excess, 
be  used  as  fuel  or  energy  but  is  much  more  expensive 
than  carbohydrates  as  a  source  of  energy.  Carbohydrates 
supply  fuel  and  energy  and  aid  in  forming  fatty  tissue 
after  they  are  transformed  into  fats.  Fats  perform  the 
same  function  as  the  carbohdrates  and  are  2.25  times 
as  valuable  as  the  latter  as  a  source  of  heat  and  energy. 

PRODUCTS   ESSENTIAL   TO   LIFE   AND   GROWTH 

Experiments  conducted  with  pure  chemicals  to  discover 
what  elements  are  absolutely  essential  to  life  and  growth 
show  that  the  diet  must  contain  protein,  carbohydrates, 
fats,  inorganic  salts,  namely  calcium,  sodium  and  chlorine, 
and  two  unidentified  substances  called  for  convenience  by 
McCullom,  "Fat  soluble  A"  and  "Water  Soluble  B."  Fat 
Soluble  (A)  is  associated  with  fats,  especially  with  but- 
ter fat,  egg  yolk  fats  and  fats  of  the  glandular  organs 
of  animals,  but  not  in  fats  or  oils  of  vegetable  origin. 
Water  Soluble  (B)  is  not  associated  with  fats  or  oils  but 
is  widely  distributed  in  various  products  from  which  it 
can  be  secured  by  extraction  with  water  or  alcohol.  It 
is  found  especially  in  milk  and  leaves,  fruit  juices  and  in 
the  liver  and  kidneys. 

42 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  POULTRY 

SOURCES  OF  THESE  ESSENTIAL   PRODUCTS 

All  seeds  resemble  each  other  closely  in  properties  and 
are  largely  deficient  in  the  same  substances.  Leaves  com- 
bined with  seeds  supplement  all  the  nutritive  deficiencies 
of  the  seeds  but  do  not  usually  furnish  the  essential  nu- 
trients in  suffiicent  quantities.  The  dry  leaf  contains  3 
to  5  times  as  much  ash  as  the  seed  and  is  especially  rich 
in  calcium,  sodium  and  chlorine.  It  is  also  richer  in  Fat 
Soluble  A  and  contains  a  supply  of  protein.  Milk  is  a 
complete  food  containing  both  Fat  Soluble  A  and  Water 
Soluble  B.  It  is  deficient  in  iron  but  most  water  contains 
sufficient  iron  to  make  up  for  this  deficiency.  Muscle  tis- 
sue is  lacking  in  minerals  and  is  relatively  poor  in  Fat 
Soluble  A  as  compared  with  milk  and  leaves.  The 
glandular  organs,  especially  the  liver  and  kidneys  contain 
more  of  both  (A)  and  (B)  than  the  muscle  tissues. 

Eggs  are  a  complete  food  but  used  alone  do  not  produce 
the  best  results.  The  yolk  is  especially  rich  in  these  two 
desired  factors.  The  effect  of  heating  or  drying  on  these 
products  is  not  yet  clearly  established  but  Fat  Soluble 
(A)  in  milk  does  not  appear  to  be  affected  either  by  dry- 
ing or  canning,  and  both  (A)  and  (B)  in  leaves  are  not 
affected  either  by  .dry ing.  Feeds  supplying  Fat  Soluble 
(A)  require  special  selections  but  Water  Soluble  (B)  is 
widely  distributed  in  feeds  and  it  is  not  nearly  as  likely 
to  be  deficient  as  (A).  Milk,  eggs  and  leafy  vegetables 
should  be  regarded  as  protective  feeds  especially  high  in 
Fat  Soluble  (A)  and  in  minerals.  Fruits  are  high  in 
salts  and  have  a  beneficial  effect  on  the  system.  A  bal- 

43 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

anced  ration  requires  supplementing  seeds,  tubers,  roots 
and  meat  with  milk  and  leafy  vegetables. 

FEEDING  STANDARDS  FOR  FOWLS 

Very  little  satisfactory  work  has  been  done  in  prepar- 
ing feeding  standards  for  fowls.  Some  digestive  experi- 
ments have  been  conducted  but  the  results  have  not  been 
particularly  satisfactory  and  the  number  of  feeds  included 
in  this  work  is  comparatively  small.  One  reason  why 
digestive  tests  with  fowls  is  difficult  is  because  the  urine 
and  dung  is  voided  together  and  not  separately  as  with 
animals,  making  it  much  more  difficult  to  study  the  differ- 
ent elements  digested  in  feeds.  For  these  reasons  the 
digestible  nutrients  of  feeds  which  apply  to  animals  are 
practically  the  only  complete  tables  available  for  use  with 
poultry,  but  the  digestive  experiments  conducted  with 
poultry  .so  far,  would  indicate  that  the  animal  digestion 
tests  do  give  somewhat  similar  results  to  tests  with 
fowls.  While  the  digestive  tests  which  have  been  made 
with  fowls  are  very  limited  in  number  and  the  use  of 
nutritive  values  and  ratios  is  of  an  indefinite  nature,  they 
still  furnish  our  best  available  data  and  the  nutritive  ratios 
worked  out  in  this  book  are  based  on  digestible  com- 
position as  worked  out  for  animal  feeding.  Table  (II)  in 
the  rear  of  this  book  gives  the  total  composition  of  feeds 
and  also  the  digestible  composition  of  feeds  for  animals. 

NUTRITIVE  RATIOS 

The  proportion  of  the  protein  to  the  nitrogen  free  ex- 
tract plus  the  fat  reduced  to  terms  of  nitrogen  free  ex- 

44 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  POULTRY 


tract,  is  called  the  nutritive  ratio.  The  fat  has  a  feed  value 
two  and  a  fourth  times  as  great  as  the  nitrogen  free  ex- 
tract so  the  fat  is  multiplied  by  2^4  and  added  to  the  nitro- 
gen free  extract  and  the  total  of  these  two  products,  di- 
vided by  the  protein,  gives  the  last  figure  of  the  nutritive 
ratio.  The  following  example  of  a  complete  ration  is 
given  to  show  how  this  nutritive  ratio  is  figured.  In  this 
example  the  scratch  mixture  and  the  mash  have  been  com- 
bined on  the  basis  that  the  same  number  of  pounds  (300) 
of  scratch  mixture  are  fed  as  of  mash.  The  mash  as 
given  in  this  ration  totals  300  pounds  to  equal  the  300 
pounds  of  scratch  feed  (corn,  wheat  and  oats),  making  a 
complete  balanced  ration.  Table  (II)  gives  the  number  of 
pounds  of  digestible  feed  constituents  (protein,  nitrogen- 
free  extract,  and  fat)  in  100  pounds  of  each  of  the  grains, 
so  that  in  order  to  get  the  number  of  pounds  of  these 

TABLE  III 

Example  of  Nutritive  Ratio 


Pounds  of  Feed 

*Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

100  corn                           .... 

% 

7  5 

% 
67.8 

% 
4.6 

loo  wheat 

0  2 

67.5 

i-5 

9-7 

52.1 

3-8 

13.5 

135.1 

6.9 

39.8 

14.8 

12  bran             

i.c 

5.0 

•4 

12  middling          .... 

1.6 

5-5 

.5 

Total            .... 

82.8 

333-0 

32.5 

*Digestible  nutrients 

45 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

constituents  in  196  pounds  of  corn  meal  the  composition 
as  given  in  the  table  is  divided  by  100  to  get  the  amount 
in  I  pound  of  corn  meal  and  this  is  then  multiplied  by 
196.  A  similar  process  is  gone  through  in  the  case  of  the 
meat  scrap,  bran,  and  middlings.  The  amount  of  con- 
stituents in  the  corn,  wheat,  and  oats  are  the  same  as  in 
Table  II,  since  exactly  100  pounds  of  each  of  these  feeds 
is  used  in  this  example. 

The  fat,  32.5,  is  multiplied  by  two  and  a  fourth,  giving 
73.1,  which  is  added  to  the  carbohydrates,  333.0,  making 
a  total  of  406.1.  This,  divided  by  the  protein,  82.8  gives 
a  nutritive  ratio  of  I  to  4.9  for  this  ration. 

The  value  of  a  nutritive  ratio  in  actual  poultry  practice 
is  limited  but  it  has  some  value  where  new  feeds  are  being 
used  to  make  a  combination  which  approximates  the  mix- 
tures ordinarily  advised  or  which  have  been  used  success- 
fully. It  has  never  been  determined  just  what  nutritive 
ratio  is  best  for  egg  laying,  for  fattening,  or  for  growth 
and  different  rations  having  considerable  variation  in 
nutritive  ratios  have  given  good  results  in  every  line  of 
feeding  work.  The  nutritive  ratio  for  laying  rations 
should  be  about  I  to  4^  or  5,  and  a  growing  ration  should 
have  about  this  same  proportion  or  it  may  be  a  slightly 
wider,  that  is,  I  to  4^/2  or  6.  The  fattening  ration  should 
be  still  wider,  the  ratio  being  about  i  to  7.  In  figuring 
nutritive  ratio  the  proportion  of  scratch  mixture  and  mash 
used  for  poultry  is  very  important  as  ordinarily  the  mash 
has  a  low  nutritive  ratio  and  the  scratch  mixture  a  wide 
ratio.  The  nutritive  ratios  in  this  book  are  figured  on  the 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  POULTRY 

basis  of  an  equal  consumption  of  mash  and  of  scratch 
feed  for  the  year  which  is  the  proportion  advised  for 
average  conditions. 

The  composition  of  the  feeds  which  directly  affects  the 
nutritive  ratio  of  a  mixture,  is  not  in  itself  an  absolute 
test  of  their  feeding  value  for  poultry.  For  instance,  cer- 
tain feeds  are  high  in  protein  but  if  the  protein  is  of  vege- 
table origin  it  is  not  nearly  as  valuable  for  poultry  as  a 
feed  in  which  the  protein  is  of  animal  origin.  Feeds  high 
in  crude  fiber  are  undesirable  in  a  poultry  ration  even 
though  they  contain  considerable  protein  and  other  ele- 
ments useful  in  poultry  feeding.  Therefore,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  work  out  satisfactory  rations  based  on  the  analysis 
only,  and  the  palatability  and  actual  feeding  practice  of 
these  feeds  for  poultry  must  be  taken  into  consideration. 

FEED  REQUIREMENTS  OF  CHICKS  AND  MATURE  FOWLS 

A  table  showing  the  approximate  feed  requirements  for 
chicks  and  fowls  was  worked  out  a  number  of  years  ago  at 
the  New  York  Experiment  Station,  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  by 
W.  P.  Wheeler.  The  actual  working  value  of  such  a 
table  is  open  to  question  but  it  does  have  a  value  in  show- 
ing the  approximate  amount  of  feed  required  for  chickens 
of  different  ages.  Chickens  cannot  be  fed  by  a  table  of 
any  kind  with  success  and  the  feeding  practice  must  be 
successfully  handled  by  the  actual  feeder  who  judges  the 
amount  to  give  by  the  appetites  of  the  chickens.  Some 
lots  of  chickens  will  consume  considerably  more  feed  than 

47 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 


another  lot  of  the  same  breed  and  of  the  same  age.    The 
table  as  worked  out  by  Mr.  Wheeler  is  as  follows :  — 

TABLE  IV. 

Feed  Requirements  of  Chickens  per  Day  for  Each  100  Pounds  of 
Live  Weight 


Digestible  nutrients  (pounds) 

£ 

j^ 

"m 

Birds 

*C 

Ji  2 

•a   s 

-<  <°'i 

'£    .2 

I 

I 

31 

| 

Sll 

111 

III 

Growing  chicks: 

First  two  weeks.  .. 

2.00 

0.40 

7.20 

0.50 

IO.I 

18,800 

to  4.1 

Two  to  four  weeks 

2.2O 

.50 

6.  20 

.70 

9.6 

17,830 

to  3.4 

Four  to  six  weeks. 

2.00 

.40 

5.60 

.60 

8.6 

15,640 

to  3.3 

Six  to  eight  weeks 

1.  60 

.40 

4.90 

.50 

7-4 

13,780 

103.7 

Eight  to  ten  weeks 

1.20 

•30 

4.40 

•So 

6.4 

11.680 

to  4.3 

Ten  to  twelve  weeks 

1.  00 

•30 

3-70 

.40 

5-4 

10,000 

to  4-4 

Adults     (maintenance 

only) 

Capon,      9     to      iz 

pounds  

.30 
.40 
•SO 

.20 

.20 
•30 

1.74 

2.0O 

2-95 

.06 

.10 

.15 

2-3 

2.7 
3-9 

4,600 
5,300 
7,680 

to  7.5 
to  6.2 
to  7.4 

TT.«  I  S  to  7  pounds 
11611  t  3  to  5  pounds 

Egg  production: 
TT~,  J  5  to  8  pounds 
Hen  I  3  to  5  pounds 

•6s 

I.OO 

.20 

•35 

2.25 

3-75 

.20 
•30 

3-3 

5-4 

6,240 
10,300 

to  4.2 
to  4.6 

48 


PART  II 
DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 


CHAPTER  V 

CEREALS  AND  THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS  USED  IN  POULTRY 
FEEDING 

Indian  Corn  and  its  By-Products.  Corn  is  the  leading 
cereal  produced  in  this  country  and  is  the  grain  most  ex- 
tensively fed  to  poultry.  According  to  the  Yearbook  of 
the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  2,917,450,000  bush- 
els of  corn  were  produced  in  1919,  valued  at  $3,934,- 
234,000  and  2,502,665,000  bushels  in  1918  valued  at 
$3,416,240,000.  The  average  yield  per  acre  (in  the 
United  States)  was  28.6  bushels  in  1919  and  24.0  in  1918. 
This  crop  equals  in  acreage  and  value  all  the  combined 
principal  grains  together  with  several  of  the  minor  crops. 
The  bulk  of  the  crop  is  produced  in  the  Central  West 
where  the  land  is  wonderfully  fertile  and  where  the  nights 
are  warm  during  the  growing  .season,  but  corn  can  be 
raised  in  nearly  every  State  in  the  Union. 

Corn  is  the  great  heat  and  energy  producing  grain, 
being  composed  largely  of  carbohydrates  and  oil,  but 
being  rather  low  in  crude  protein  and  especially  deficient 
in  mineral  matter.  The  crude  protein  of  this  grain  con- 
sists largely  of  a  single  protein  called  zein,  which  is 
thought  to  lack  some  of  the  amino-acids  considered  neces- 
sary for  animal  growth.  This  deficiency  in  mineral  mat- 
ter is  made  up  by  feeding  the  corn  with  bran,  middlings, 

51 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

meat  scraps  and  green  feed  or  grass  secured  on  range. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  corn  used  in  feeding  poultry, 
dent  and  flint.  Flint  corn  is  much  harder  than  dent  corn 
and  the  starch  is  more  bonelike  and  flinty.  This  kind  of 
corn  is  especially  preferred  for  feeding  pigeons,  but  both 
flint  and  dent  corn  are  fed  extensively  to  poultry.  Corn 
on  the  cob  is  frequently  fed  to  hens  on  general  farms,  but 
hens  are  not  able  to  eat  corn  on  the  cob  freely  and  it  gives 
no  opportunity  to  use  the  grain  in  the  litter  as  a  scratch 
feed.  Feeding  corn  on  the  cob  to  fowls  is  not  advised, 
as  it  undoubtedly  pays  to  have  the  corn  shelled. 

It  takes  about  70  pounds  of  the  average  quality  well 
dried  dent  corn  on  the  cob  to  make  a  bushel  (56  pounds 
of  .shelled  corn).  Flint  corn  has  a  larger  proportion  of 
cob  to  corn  than  has  dent  corn.  Freshly  husked  corn 
contains  a  considerable  per  cent  of  water  and  in  the  early 
fall  75  to  80  pounds  of  dent  corn  on  the  cob  are  considered 
equal  to  a  bushel  of  shelled  corn.  Shelled  corn  does  not 
keep  well  in  bulk,  especially  in  the  summer,  and  is  usually 
kept  as  long  as  possible  on  the  cob.  Old  shelled  corn 
contains  about  12  per  cent  water,  and  corn  containing 
over  20  per  cent  water  will  not  keep  well  in  storage  in 
large  quantities.  Soft  corn  is  the  result  of  corn  being 
frosted  before  it  is  matured,  and  such  corn  will  not  keep 
well.  If  used  for  poultry  it  should  be  carefully  watched 
to  see  that  decomposition  has  not  begun  and  that  it  is 
neither  moldy  nor  musty. 

Corn  meal  correctly  refers  to  the  ground  whole  corn 
grain,  but  this  term  is  also  often  applied  commercially  to 

52 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

finely  ground  si f tings  and  waste  from  corn  meal  prepared 
for  home  consumption,  as  well  as  that  secured  in  making 
cracked  corn.  This  waste  meal  has  a  feed  value  about 
equal  to  ground  whole  corn.  Corn  chop  usually  refers 
to  ground  whole  corn,  although  other  ground  corn  by- 
products may  be  included  in  it.  It  is  usually  a  much 
coarser  product  than  corn  meal.  Ground  grains  have  no 
more  feed  value  than  these  same  grains  in  their  whole  or 
cracked  forms,  but  the  best  results  in  feeding  poultry  are 
secured  where  about  one  half  of  the  feed  is  given  in  the 
whole  or  cracked  form  called  scratch  feed  and  the  rest 
in  the  form  of  finely  ground  grains  and  meat  feeds  which 
make  up  what  is  called  the  mash. 

Corn  and  cob  meal,  which  is  the  corn  and  cob  ground 
up  together  is  not  adapted  to  poultry  feeding  on  account 
of  ita  high  fiber  content  and  fowls  are  not  able  to  digest 
or  utilize  crude  fiber  as  well  as  live  stock.  Commercial 
starch  and  glucose  are  manufactured  from  corn  by  soak- 
ing the  corn  in  water  containing  some  acid  and  separating 
the  desired  constituents.  Four  products  are  secured  in 
this  process ;  the  germ,  used  in  making  corn  oil  and  germ 
oil  meal  or  corn  oil  cake ;  the  bran  made  up  of  the  hulls ; 
the  gluten,  and  the  starch.  Corn  gluten  feed  contains  the 
gluten  and  the  corn  bran  to  which  is  added  the  residue 
from  the  water  used  in  soaking  the  corn,  making  a  rich 
concentrated  food.  It  is  rich  in  crude  protein  and  fat 
and  contains  considerable  carbohydrates.  The  composi- 
tion of  this  feed  is  quite  variable,  depending  on  its  manu- 
facture, but  the  protein  usually  ranges  from  18  to  29 

53 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

per  cent  and  the  ash  from  i  to  6  per  cent.  Both  yellow 
and  white  corn  are  used  which  gives  a  corresponding 
color  to  the  product.  Artificial  yellow  coloring  matter  is 
sometimes  added  to  the  white  product.  The  gluten  meal 
is  now  practically  all  used  up  in  making  gluten  feeds. 
Most  of  the  oil  is  pressed  out  of  the  germ,  leaving  a  cake 
that  is  called  germ  oil  cake  or  corn  oil  cake.  This  is  higher 
in  fat  than  gluten,  but  lower  in  protein. 

Hominy  feed,  also  called  hominy  meal  or  chop,  con- 
tains the  bran  coating,  the  germ  and  some  of  the  starchy 
parts  of  the  grain  obtained  in  manufacturing  hominy 
grits  for  human  consumption.  It  is  similar  to  corn  in 
composition,  but  is  slightly  lower  in  nitrogen  free  extract 
and  higher  in  fiber  and  in  fat.  It  is  sweet  and  clean 
and  usually  keeps  better  than  corn  meal.  Corn  bran  con- 
tains slightly  more  nitrogen  free  extract  and  fat  than 
wheat  bran,  but  only  about  three-fifths  as  much  protein, 
while  it  is  higher  than  wheat  bran  in  fiber.  It  is  rarely 
sold  as  a  separate  feed  and  is  not  nearly  as  good  a  poultry 
feed  as  wheat  bran. 

Corn  and  corn  meal  are  the  grains  most  palatable  and 
best  liked  by  poultry.  In  the  experiments  conducted  by 
the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C, 
where  bran,  middlings,  meat  scrap  and  corn  meal  were 
kept  in  separate  hoppers  before  the  fowls  they  consumed 
much  larger  quantities  of  corn  meal  than  any  other  prod- 
uct throughout  the  year.  The  average  consumption  of 
these  products  for  a  year,  for  White  Leghorns,  was  66 
per  cent  corn  meal,  26  per  cent  meat  scrap  and  4  per  cent 

54 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

each  of  bran  and  middlings.  A  mash  containing  a  con- 
siderable percentage  of  corn  meal  is  very  palatable  to 
fowls  and  if  properly  balanced  with  meat  scrap  is  not  too 
fattening.  Corn  or  corn  meal  alone  are  too  fattening  un- 
less balanced  with  a  high  protein  feed. 

WHEAT  AND  ITS  BY-PRODUCTS 

Wheat  is  ranked  next  in  importance  to  corn  as  a  poul- 
try feed  and  is  especially  well  liked  by  most  poultrymen, 
but  on  account  of  its  extensive  use  for  human  consump- 
tion and  its  present  relatively  high  price  it  is  not  being 
used  so  much  as  a  poultry  feed  as  it  has  been  in  the  past. 
From  10  to  over  40  per  cent  of  the  wheat  crop  is  usually 
exported  from  this  country  while  only  i  to  2  per  cent  of 
the  corn  crop  is  exported.  Considerable  of  the  wheat 
produced,  especially  that  handled  under  unfavorable 
weather  conditions,  is  of  a  low  grade  and  not  well  adapted 
for  making  flour,  which  wheat  is  available  and  largely 
used  in  feeding  poultry.  A  total  of  940,987,000  bushels 
of  wheat  were  produced  in  the  United  States  in  1919 
which  were  valued  at  $2,024,008,000.  The  average  yield 
per  acre  for  the  United  States  was  12.8  bushels  in  1919 
and  15.6  bushels  in  1918.  Wheat  is  raised  in  nearly  every 
State  in  the  Union,  being  largely  produced  in  the  northern 
section  of  the  Central  West.  It  is  also  raised  on  a  large 
scale  in  the  Pacific  Coast  States  where  very  little  corn 
is  produced. 

Wheat  contains  more  crude  protein,  less  fat,  and 
slightly  more  carbohydrates  than  corn.  It  is  low  in  rnin- 

55 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

eral  matter  and  needs  to  be  supplemented  with  feeds  rich 
in  lime  and  protein.  It  is  an  unbalanced  feed  the  same 
as  is  corn  and  should  be  used  with  other  feeds  and  not 
fed  as  an  exclusive  grain  diet.  The  protein  content  of 
wheat  varies  considerably  in  different  sections  of  the  coun- 
try. Durhum  or  macaroni  wheat  is  grown  extensively 
in  the  Plains  States  and  has  about  the  same  composition 
as  ordinary  wheat  grown  in  the  same  section. 

In  producing  flour,  wheat  is  milled  through  rollers,  the 
object  being  to  secure  all  of  the  starch  and  gluten  possible, 
avoiding  the  germ  and  the  bran.  The  by-products  se- 
cured in  the  manufacture  of  flour  are  wheat  bran,  stan- 
dard middlings  or  shorts,  white  or  flour  middlings,  red 
dog  flour,  and  mixed  wheat  feed,  all  of  which  together 
make  up  from  25  to  35  per  cent  of  the  wheat  kernel. 
Thus  a  large  amount  of  wheat  by-products  are  available 
for  feeding  live  stock  and  poultry  on  account  of  the  large 
amount  of  flour  produced  in  this  country  for  human  con- 
sumption. 

Bran  consists  of  the  outer  coating  of  the  wheat  and  is 
quite  rich  in  digestible  crude  protein  and  mineral  matter 
and  also  contains  considerable  carbohydrates.  This  feed 
contains  considerable  fiber  and  is  deficient  in  mineral 
lime.  Wheat  bran  contains  from  6  to  7  per  cent  of 
phosphorus,  magnesia,  and  potash  combined  together. 
The  laxative  effect  of  bran  noted  in  its  use  as  a 
feed  has  been  found  to  be  due  to  its  phosphorus  content. 
Lime  in  some  form  should  be  supplied  with  bran  and  is 
generally  given  to  poultry  in  the  form  of  oyster  or  clam 

56 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

shells  and  also  through  green  feeds,  especially  the  legumes. 
Bran  gives  bulk  to  the  ration,  adds  considerable  food 
value,  and  is  especially  desirable  for  breeding  fowls  and 
for  growing  chickens. 

Red  dog  flour,  also  called  red  dog  middlings,  contains 
the  germs  of  wheat  and  is  a  dark  colored  feeding  flour 
with  about  the  some  composition  and  value  as  the  best 
flour  middlings.  Wheat  middlings  vary  greatly  in  quality 
from  the  red  dog  flour  which  contains  considerable  fine 
flour,  to  shorts  which  contain  very  little  flour.  Standard 
or  brown  middlings  are  made  up  of  fine  particles  of  bran 
to  which  considerable  flour  is  attached.  White  or  flour 
middlings  are  a  better  grade  of  middlings  containing 
more  low  grade  flour  and  being  of  somewhat  higher  food 
value  than  the  standard  or  brown  middlings.  Shorts  often 
consist  of  a  poorer  middlings  than  the  grade  referred  to 
as  standard  middlings,  being  made  of  reground  bran  and 
sweepings.  This  term  is  also  sometimes  used  interchange- 
ably with  standard  or  bran  middlings.  Wheat  mixed 
feed  or  ship-stuff  refers  strictly  to  the  entire  run  of  the 
mill  from  wheat  flour,  but  is  often  used  to  refer  to  mix- 
tures of  bran  and  middlings  in  various  proportions.  Its 
comparative  value  depends  largely  on  the  amount  of  flour 
which  it  contains. 

A  large  amount  of  wheat  screenings  are  produced  at 
the*  mills,  consisting  of  broken  and  shrunken  wheat  mixed 
with  weed  seeds.  This  wheat  has  good  food  value  and 
some  of  the  weed  seeds  are  also  of  value,  while  other  seeds 
have  little  value.  All  very  hard  small  weed  seeds  are  ob- 

57 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

jectionable  as  possible  sources  of  weed  infection  through 
the  manure.  Finely  ground  wheat  screenings  are  in  a 
form  which  prevents  their  serving  as  a  source  of  weed 
infection  and  this  product  is  used  largely  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  proprietary  feed  stuffs  and  not  sold  much  for 
poultry  and  live  stock  as  a  separate  feed. 

Bread  is  a  splendid  poultry  feed  and  is  used  to  quite  an 
extent,  especially  in  feeding  small  and  growing  chickens. 
Stale  bread  from  bakeries  can  sometimes  be  secured  at  a 
price  which  makes  it  an  economical  feed  for  mature  stock, 
but  it  is  not  considered  to  be  of  as  great  value  in  their 
ration  as  it  is  in  the  feed  for  young  chickens. 

OATS  AND  THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS 

Oats  are  grown  all  over  the  United  States  and  are 
used  extensively  as  a  poultry  feed.  A  total  of  1,248,- 
310,000  bushels  of  oats  were  produced  in  the  United 
States  in  1919,  valued  at  $1,248,310,000  and  1,538,- 
124,000  bushels  in  1918.  The  production  in  number  of 
bushels  of  oats  is  far  greater  than  of  bushels  of  wheat, 
although  the  value  is  less.  The  average  yield  per  acre  in 
the  United  States  in  1919  was  29.4  bushels,  and  in  1918, 
34.6  bushels.  The  weight  and  quality  of  oats  is  mate- 
rially affected  by  the  soil  and  climate.  Those  grown  in 
the  South  sometimes  weigh  as  low  as  20  pounds  to  the 
bushel,  while  in  the  Northwest,  oats  weighing  50  pounds 
to  the  bushel  are  produced.  The  hull  of  oats  makes  up 
from  20  to  45  per  cent  of  their  weight  and  averages  about 
30  per  cent.  Oats  which  have  the  hulls  clipped  at  the 

58 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

pointed  end  are  called  clipped  oats  and  contain  a  smaller 
per  cent  of  hull  than  undipped  oats,  provided  that  the 
oats  are  of  good  quality.  The  large  per  cent  of  hull  in 
oats  is  somewhat  objectionable  for  feeding  poultry  and  a 
hull-less  oats  has  been  produced  which  is  a  better  poultry 
feed  but  which  is  only  raised  on  a  small  scale  in  this 
country.  Oats  are  higher  in  crude  protein  than  corn,  and 
contain  more  fat  than  wheat,  having  about  the  same  fat 
content  as  corn. 

A  large  amount  of  oat  by-products  is  made  in  the  manu- 
facture of  oat-meal  and  other  breakfast  foods.  Only  the 
heavier  grades  of  oats  are  used  for  these,  and  the  hulls 
are  removed,  leaving  a  large  quantity  of  oats  hulls  and 
considerable  light  weight  oats  available  for  feeding  poul- 
try and  livestock.  These  oats  hulls  contain  about  30  per 
cent  fiber  and  have  very  little  nutritive  value  but  may 
have  some  value  in  furnishing  bulk  to  a  ration  for  live- 
stock. They  would  be  detrimental,  rather  than  of  value, 
in  a  poultry  ration.  These  bulky  products  are  sold  in  mix- 
tures of  other  feeds  as  well  as  in  ground  or  crushed  oats 
so  that  the  value  of  all  oats  product  should  be  carefully 
considered  on  the  basis  of  their  composition,  especially  in 
regard  to  their  fiber  content. 

Rolled  oats  and  oat-meal  prepared  similarly  to  that 
used  for  breakfast  food  and  human  consumption  are  fed 
quite  extensively  to  small  chickens  and  to  some  extent 
to  hens.  Rolled  oats  which  are  not  throughly  cleaned  or 
are  not  of  the  best  grades  for  human  consumption  are 
those  usually  fed  to  poultry.  Ground  oats  and  oats  feeds 

59 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

consist  of  oats  and  its  by-products  ground  up,  and  should 
always  be  bought  on  the  basis  of  their  guaranteed  com- 
position. It  is  very  easy  to  include  a  large  proportion  of 
oats  hulls  or  other  feeds  of  very  low  value  which  are 
difficult  to  detect  in  a  superficial  mechanical  examination 
of  oats  feeds.  The  fiber  content  will  show  approximately 
the  relative  amount  of  oats  hulls  in  the  feed. 

Various  by-products  of  oats  are  made  but  they  are  not 
much  used  in  feeding  poultry  except  as  they  are  included 
in  the  commercial  mixed  feeds.  Oat  dust  consists  of  the 
small  hairs  which  adhere  to  the  outer  end  of  the  kernel 
and  contain  considerable  protein  and  fat  and  about  18 
per  cent  fiber.  Its  feeding  value  lies  between  that  of  oats 
hulls  and  oats  middlings.  Oats  middlings  and  oats  shorts 
are  made  of  the  outside  skins  of  this  grain,  occupying 
a  position  in  the  oats  seed  similar  to  the  bran  of  wheat. 
Oats  middlings  contain  more  fat  than  wheat  bran.  Pin- 
head  oatmeal  or  hulled  oats  are  used  extensively  in  feed- 
ing small  chickens. 

The  berry  of  the  oats  with  the  hulls  removed  is  called 
"oats  groats"  and  is  used  extensively  in  a  finely  ground 
form  in  the  commercial  fattening  of  poultry  in  which  a 
very  finely  ground  product  is  desired  with  only  a  small 
amount  of  fiber.  Ground  oats,  which  have  been  reground, 
are  also  sometimes  used,  especially  in  fattening  hens,  but 
do  not  give  as  good  results  as  do  ground  oats  groats. 
Clipped  oats  by-products  are  made  of  clippings  from  the 
ends  of  oats  and  consists  largely  of  fiber.  This  product  is 
used  mostly  in  preparing  proprietary  feeds.  The  feed 

60 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

called  ground  corn  and  oats  is  very  variable  in  quality, 
depending  on  the  grade  of  oats,  corn,  and  other  products 
used  in  its  manufacture.  A  good  grade  of  ground 
corn  and  oats  should  not  contain  over  about  7  per 
cent  fiber,  which  would  be  about  half  each  of  corn  and 
of  oats. 

Oats  are  an  excellent  feed  for  poultry  and  make  sturdy 
growth,  especially  in  young  chicks.  They  are  used  ex- 
tensively both  for  feeding  chicks  and  for  feeding  mature 
fowls.  The  principal  objection  to  oats  is  their  fiber  which 
is  especially  high  and  undesirable  in  light  weight  oats. 
Oats  from  which  the  hull  has  been  removed,  such  as  rolled 
oats  and  hulled  oats  are  especially  desirable  for  chick  feed. 
Rolled  oats  are  also  used  somewhat  in  feeding  mature 
fowls  and  are  greatly  relished  by  them.  Rolled  oats  are 
usually  considered  too  high  in  price  to  be  used  for  mature 
stock,  although  if  one  desires  a  nourishing  feed  which  is 
especially  palatable  to  the  fowls  they  are  worth  consid- 
ering as  an  addition  to  the  mash.  Ground  oats,  in  which 
the  hulls  are  included,  are  more  commonly  used  for  feed- 
ing laying  hens.  Ground  oats  which  are  specially  pre- 
pared and  of  which  an  especially  fine  product  is  made, 
have  been  used  extensively  for  fattening,  in  Sussex,  Eng- 
land, in  which  section  the  oats  are  commonly  spoken  of 
as  Sussex  oats.  Clipped  oats  are  sometimes  used  for  lay- 
ing hens  but  if  a  fairly  heavy  oats  is  available  they  can 
be  used  without  clipping.  If  the  oats  are  very  light  it  will 
pay  to  use  clipped  oats  for  mature  fowls  rather  than  the 
light  weight  oats. 

61 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

BARLEY  AND  BREWERS'  GRAINS 

Barley  is  not  fed  nearly  as  extensively  to  poultry  as  are 
corn,  wheat  and  oats,  but  is  used  considerably  on  the 
Pacific  Coast  where  very  little  corn  is  produced.  This 
grain  is  grown  extensively  in  this  country  and  has  been 
used  largely  for  brewing  and  stock  feeding.  Bald  or  hull- 
less  barley  is  grown  in  the  Western  States  and  is  a  better 
feed  for  poultry  than  the  ordinary  barley  because  it  has 
no  hulls  and  does  not  contain  so  much  fibre.  Barley  con- 
tains more  digestible  protein  than  corn  but  less  than  oats. 
It  ranks  between  oats  and  corn  in  its  carbohydrate  con- 
tent and  is  lower  in  fat  than  either  of  these  grains.  In 
1918,  256,225,000  bushels  of  barley  were  produced  in  the 
United  States,  the  average  production  per  acre  being  26.3 
bushels.  Its  value  was  estimated  at  $234,942,000.  In 
1919  only  165,719,000  bushels  were  produced. 

Malt  used  in  making  beer  is  produced  from  barley  by 
steeping  the  grains  in  warm  water  and  allowing  small 
sprouts  to  form.  In  this  process  the  diastase,  which  is  the 
enzyme  that  converts  starch  into  malted  sugar,  is  greatly 
increased.  After  the  sprouts  are  started  the  sprouting 
grain  is  quickly  dried  and  the  dried  sprouts  separated  from 
the  grains  and  sold  as  malt  sprouts.  The  dried  grains  form 
malt,  which  is  mixed  with  cracked  corn  to  make  beer  by 
mechanical  treatment  and  fermentation.  The  residue 
makes  up  wet  brewers'  grains  which  are  dried  in  a  vacuum 
to  make  dried  brewers'  grains.  Experiments  with  live- 
stock show  that  there  is  more  actual  food  value  in  the 
original  barley  than  in  the  malt  and  malt  sprouts  com- 

62 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

bined,  but  these  later  products  are  very  palatable  to  stock 
and  may  have  a  value  for  specific  feeding  or  conditioning 
purposes  greater  than  their  actual  food  content. 

Dried  brewers'  grains  keep  as  well  as  bran  and  contain 
over  70  per  cent  more  digestible  crude  protein  and  twice 
as  much  fat,  but  less  carbohydrates.  The  fibre  content  is 
higher  than  bran,  making  them  a  bulky  feed,  not  especially 
adapted  for  poultry  feeding,  but  used  more  for  livestock, 
especially  for  dairy  cows.  Wet  brewers'  grains  contain 
about  75  per  cent  water  and  can  only  be  fed  profitably 
where  they  are  produced.  They  are  not  used  in  feeding 
poultry  and  considerable  care  must  be  exercised  in  their 
use  for  cows  to  keep  the  quarters  sanitary  and  the  stock 
in  good  condition.  Malt  sprouts  make  a  bulky  feed,  rather 
low  in  carbohydrates  and  fat,  but  with  about  20  per  cent 
of  digestible  crude  protein  in  a  readily  assimilable  form. 
They  swell  greatly  and  are  usually  thoroughly  soaked  in 
water  before  being  fed  to  cattle.  Malt  sprouts  are  used 
only  for  feeding  cattle. 

Barley  feed  is  rarely  found  on  the  market  and  has 
about  the  same  feeding  value  as  wheat  bran.  It  is  a  by- 
product from  the  manufacture  of  pearl  barley  and  barley 
flour.  Barley  meal  or  ground  barley  is  used  extensively 
in  poultry  feeding  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

RYE 

Rye  is  not  produced  extensively  in  this  country  and  is 
rarely  fed  to  poultry  as  they  do  not  relish  this  grain.  It  is 
raised  extensively  in  Europe  and  used  there  in  making 

63 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

bread  for  human  consumption.  When  fed  alone  it  is  more 
apt  to  cause  digestive  troubles  than  the  cereals  commonly 
used  for  poultry  in  this  country.  A  limited  amount  of  rye 
may  be  fed  to  poultry  in  connection  with  other  cereals,  but 
it  is  not  usually  bought  as  a  poultry  scratch  feed.  Rye 
bran  and  rye  middlings  are  usually  mixed  together  and 
sold  as  rye  feed.  They  have  about  the  same  feeding  value 
as  the  corresponding  wheat  feeds  as  far  as  their  analysis 
and  actual  food  content  are  concerned  but  are  not  so 
well  liked  for  poultry  as  the  wheat  products. 

EMMER 

Emmer  is  a  member  of  the  wheat  family  which  Is 
drouth  resisting  and  of  particular  value  in  semi-arid  sec- 
tions. It  is  a  comparatively  new  grain  and  is  raised  only 
to  a  limited  extent  in  this  country,  being  produced  mostly 
in  the  northern  plain  States.  It  will  give  an  average  yield 
of  about  22  bushels  to  the  acre  and  resembles  barley  in  ap- 
pearance more  than  it  does  rye.  It  is  a  bulky  feed  with  a 
composition  similar  to  oats  and  like  oats  can  be  fed  to 
fair  advantage  with  the  other  cereals.  A  bushel  of  emmer 
weighs  40  pounds. 

SORGHUMS  AND  MILLETS 

Sorghums  and  millets  are  raised  very  extensively  in 
India,  China  and  Africa,  where  they  serve  as  one  of  the 
main  sources  of  bread  for  the  people  of  those  countries. 
Grain  sorghums  will  grow  and  do  well  under  semi-arid 
conditions  and  will  recover  from  drouths  which  entirely 
check  the  plant's  growth,  when  moisture  is  again  avail- 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

able.  The  raising  of  sorghum  is  increasing  rapidly  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  semi-arid  plains  section.  The  num- 
ber of  bushels  of  these  grains  produced  in  the  United 
States  in  1919  was  126,058,00x5. 

The  sorghums  are  divided  into  two  classes:  the  non- 
saccharine  or  grain  sorghums  which  include  all  those  of 
interest  to  the  poultryman,  and  the  saccharine  sorghums 
the  stems  of  which  are  filled  with  sweet  juices  and  are 
used  as  fodder  for  livestock.  The  grain  sorghums  in- 
clude kafir,  milo,  durra,  feterita,  kaoliang  and  shallu,  of 
which  only  the  first  four  are  of  importance  as  poultry 
feeds.  The  standard  weight  by  which  sorghums  are  sold  is 
56  pounds  to  the  bushel  and  it  takes  about  73  pounds  of 
head  kafir  or  66  pounds  of  head  milo  to  make  a  bushel  of 
these  grains.  Kafir  is  the  leading  poultry  grain  of  the 
sorghums  and  is  the  one  most  extensively  grown  in  this 
country.  It  will  give  a  yield  of  50  to  75  bushels  of  grain 
to  the  acre  on  good  soil  with  good  climatic  conditions,  but 
the  average  yield  is  usually  quite  low,  depending  greatly 
on  the  amount  of  rain- fall.  Milo  is  the  next  most  import- 
ant grain  of  this  class  and  is  grown  in  the  drier  part  of 
the  territory  adapted  for  sorghums.  Feterita  is  another 
promising  grain  sorghum  and  will  mature  in  a  somewhat 
shorter  growing  season  than  the  other  grain  sorghums.  It 
does  well  in  the  eastern  section  of  the  grain  sorghum  belt 
but  is  more  difficult  to  grow  and  handle  than  the  others. 

The  Durras  which  include  both  white  and  brown 
Durra,  commonly  called  Egyptian  or  Jerusalem  corn, 
have  a  thick  head  which  is  compact  and  egg-shaped.  The 

65 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

seeds  of  this  grain  are  flat  and  not  round  as  is  Kafir  corn. 
Kafir  has  a  smaller  seed  than  the  Durra  and  is  almost 
round.  The  white  variety  of  Kafir  is  the  one  that  is  com- 
monly raised.  Feterita  is  a  plump  bluish  white  seed  which 
is  rather  a  recent  importation  and  is  only  being  used  to  a 
small  extent.  It  has  some  use  as  a  poultry  feed  and  may 
be  more  popular  for  that  purpose  as  time  goes  on.  Both 
feterita  and  milo  belong  to  the  Durras.  The  Kaolings 
are  not  raised  much  in  California  but  are  a  common 
Chinese  sorghum  which  is  brought  in  to  a  small  extent 
from  that  country.  Shallu,  commonly  known  as  Egyp- 
tian wheat  is  used  slightly  for  a  poultry  feed  and  is  not 
raised  much  in  this  country.  It  has  a  small  hard  grain. 

The  different  sorghums  are  somewhat  similar  in  com- 
position and  from  their  analysis  would  have  a  feeding  value 
for  poultry  about  equal  to  corn.  They  are  not  as  palatable 
or  so  well  liked  by  fowls  as  corn  but  are  especially  adapted 
for  feeding  pigeons  on  account  of  being  a  very  hard  sound 
grain.  The  sorghums  are  considered  about  90  per  cent  as 
valuable  a  feed  as  corn  for  livestock.  They  are  also  used 
extensively  in  commercial  scratch  and  chick  feeds,  be- 
cause they  are  small  in  size,  will  keep  well,  and  add  var- 
iety to  the  mixtures.  Very  few  feeding  tests  and  little  ex- 
perimental work  of  any  kind  have  been  carried  on  with 
these  grain  sorghums  to  determine  their  relative  value  as 
poultry  feeds.  Kafir  corn  and  milo  maize  are  the  only 
sorghum  grains  which  are  used  much  for  poultry  feeding 
outside  of  sections  where  they  are  grown  extensively. 
Milo  maize  is  just  as  good  a  feed  as  Kafir  and  has  a 

66 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

slightly  beneficial  laxative  effect  not  secured  from  Kafir 
corn.  Brown  Durra  (brown  Egyptian  corn)  and  Kafir 
seem  to  have  a  slightly  constipating  effect  making  it  de- 
sirable to  feed  these  with  oil  meal  or  green  feed  for  live- 
stock. White  Durra  (white  Egyptian  corn)  and  the  milos 
do  not  have  this  constipating  effect,  making  them  slightly 
more  desirable  as  a  poultry  feed.  White  Egyptian  corn 
has  been  raised  quite  extensively  in  California  in  recent 
years  and  is  used  extensively  as  a  poultry  feed.  It  is  com- 
monly referred  to  locally  as  "gyp"  corn.  This  grain  and 
barley  are  the  two  common  poultry  grains  in  California 
and  are  used  much  more  extensively  than  wheat,  oats  or 
common  corn  (maize).  Egyptian  corn  sells  about  1/3 
higher  than  eastern  corn  and  somewhat  higher  than  Kafir 
corn,  which  is  due  apparently  to  its  demand  as  a  poultry 
feed  since  the  analysis  of  Egyptian  corn  would  not  in- 
dicate that  it  had  a  feeding  value  materially  greater  than 
ordinary  corn  or  Kafir  corn. 

Broom  corn  resembles  wheat  in  its  feeding  analysis  and 
appears  to  have  a  feeding  value  about  equal  to  the  grain 
sorghums.  It  is  very  little  used  as  a  poultry  feed  and  some 
difficulty  is  experienced  in  getting  the  fowls  to  eat  this 
feed  unless  the  hull  is  removed. 

The  millets  are  grown  largely  as  catch  crops  in  good 
grain  sections  but  are  raised  more  extensively  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  semi-arid  country  where  the  season 
is  too  short  for  the  grain  sorghums.  Ground  millet  seed 
has  been  found  useful  in  hog  feeding,  for  which  purpose 
it  has  a  feeding  value  about  one-fifth  less  than  wheat.  A 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

small  amount  of  millet  seed  on  account  of  its  small  size  is 
used  extensively  in  combination  with  other  grains  in  mix- 
tures for  small  chickens  and  for  pigeons,  and  to  a  less  ex- 
tent in  commercial  scratch  mixtures  for  laying  hens  to  add 
variety  to  these  feeds.  It  is  usually  too  high  priced  to  be 
used  to  make  up  any  considerable  part  of  a  poultry  feed. 
Pigeons  do  not  like  millet  seed  and  will  only  eat  it  when 
all  the  other  grains  are  gone. 

BUCKWHEAT 

Buckwheat  is  fed  to  poultry  hi  a  small  way  to  add 
variety  to  the  scratch  feed.  It  compares  with  wheat  in 
analysis  but  has  a  much  higher  per  cent  of  fibre  and  is  not 
as  palatable,  thus  making  it  less  desirable  feed.  Buck- 
wheat middlings  contain  a  high  per  cent  of  crude  protein 
and  fat  with  only  a  very  little  fibre  and  are  a  desirable 
feed.  Ordinarily  a  considerable  per  cent  of  hulls  are  added 
to  the  middlings  to  make  up  buckwheat  bran  or  buck- 
wheat feed,  usually  making  a  much  less  desirable  feed 
than  wheat  bran,  depending  on  the  amount  of  fibre  which 
it  contains. 

Buckwheat  tends  to  produce  a  white  fat  and  flesh,  on 
which  account  it  is  used  more  extensively  abroad  than  in 
this  country  as  white  fat  is  preferred  in  many  of  the  for- 
eign countries,  while  yellow  fat  and  flesh  have  the  prefer- 
ence in  the  United  States.  Buckwheat  by-products  do  not 
keep  as  well  as  wheat  by-products  and  should  be  mixed 
with  some  light  feed  such  as  wheat  bran,  if  they  are  to  be 
•stored  in  bulk. 

68 


CHAPTER  VI 

SEEDS  AND  VEGETABLE  PROTEIN  FEEDS 
SUNFLOWER  SEED 

Sunflower  seed  is  high  in  fat  and  contains  a  fairly  large 
per  cent  of  protein,  but  it  does  not  compare  favorably 
with  wheat  and  corn  in  the  total  food  nutrients  which  can 
be  secured  from  an  acre  of  land  and  is,  therefore,  usually 
too  high  priced  a  feed  to  be  used  very  much  for  poultry. 
It  is  fed  more  or  less  to  poultry,  especially  during  the 
molting  period  and  is  said  to  assist  in  molting,  to  add 
luster  to  the  plumage,  and  to  be  somewhat  of  a  condi- 
tioner. Linseed  meal  can  be  fed  during  the  molting  period 
for  these  same  effects  as  it  has  a  higher  oil  fat  content 
than  sunflower  seed.  A  small  per  cent  of  sunflower  seed  is 
found  in  a  great  many  of  the  commercial  scratch  mixtures 
as  it  adds  variety  to  these  feeds.  It  is  doubtful  if  this 
seed  is  of  sufficient  value  to  be  an  economical  feed  to  pur- 
chase at  usual  prices  where  the  fowls  are  getting  a  well 
balanced  ration. 

Poultry  men  can  often  plant  sunflowers  for  shade  to 
advantage  outside  of  the  poultry  fences  and  incidentally 
secure  a  crop  of  considerable  value  to  feed  to  the  fowls. 
Sunflower  oil  cake  is  produced  in  Europe  from  sunflower 
seed  and  used  considerably  there  as  a  feed  for  stock.  Its 
crude  protein  content  is  equal  to  that  of  linseed  meal  but 

69 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

it  is  higher  in  fiber.   No  reports  of  this  cake  having  been 
used  for  poultry  feeding  are  recorded. 

CANADA  FIELD  PEA 

The  Canada  field  pea  is  not  fed  much  to  fowls  as  a  seed 
but  is  used  extensively  in  feeding  pigeons.  It  contains 
about  twice  as  much  crude  protein  as  corn,  wheat,  or  oats, 
and  is  quite  high  in  phosphorus  and  potash.  This  seed  is 
preferred  above  all  other  feeds  for  pigeons  and  is  one  of 
the  very  best  feeds  to  use  in  producing  big  squabs.  Can- 
ada peas  are  a  very  hard  grain  which  makes  them  espe- 
cially desirable  for  pigeons,  but  hard  grains  are  not  so 
well  liked  by  poultry.  Peas  are  raised  extensively  in  the 
Northwest,  and  waste  peas,  including  those  not  available 
for  seeds  or  which  have  been  cracked  or  otherwise 
mutilated  in  handling,  are  fed  somewhat  to  poultry  in  that 
section.  The  ordinary  peas  fit  for  seed  or  human  con- 
sumption are  too  high  in  price  to  be  economical  as  a 
poultry  feed. 

A  very  small  percentage  of  Canada  or  other  peas  are 
found  included  in  commercial  scratch  mixtures  to  add 
variety  to  the  feed.  Peas  are  used  to  some  extent  to  sow 
with  oats  as  a  forage  crop  in  the  early  spring  and  make 
a  very  desirable  early  green  crop  for  poultry,  either  where 
the  poultry  are  allowed  to  range  on  the  field  or  where  the 
crop  is  cut  and  fed  to  the  poultry  as  fodder.  This  seed 
does  best  where  the  climate  is  moderately  cool  and  is  only 
raised  to  any  great  extent  in  the  extreme  northern  part 

70 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

of  this  country,  especially  in  the  States  of  Washington 
and  Oregon.  Peas,  including  the  Canada  field  pea,  are  all 
legumes  and  tend  to  enrich  the  soil  by  taking  nitrogen 
from  the  air  and  adding  it  to  the  soil. 

USE  OF  PEAS  IN  PIGEON  FEEDS 

Pigeons  kept  confined  for  squab  production  are  fed  en- 
tirely on  seeds;  and  no  ground  grains,  meat  or  animal 
feeds,  or  green  feeds  are  fed.  Pigeons  apparently  find,  in 
a  ration  of  peas  combined  with  a  few  of  the  more  com- 
mon grains,  all  of  the  necessary  elements  for  a  well- 
balanced  feed.  As  all  of  the  other  grains  used  for  pigeons 
are  also  commonly  fed  to  poultry  it  appears  that  the  peas 
in  the  pigeon  ration  furnish  the  essential  ingredients  sup- 
plied to  the  fowls  from  meat  scrap  and  green  feed,  as 
fowls  fed  without  these  two  products  or  substitutes  do 
not  give  satisfactory  results.  The  price  of  Canada  peas 
or  field  peas  is  very  much  higher  than  that  of  the  cereals 
used  for  feeding  fowls  and  the  same  food  value,  especially 
the  large  amount  of  protein,  can  be  secured  in  the  fowls' 
ration  in  cheaper  forms  from  other  sources  than  from 
Canada  peas.  The  several  kinds  of  ordinary  garden  peas 
are  similar  in  analysis  to  the  Canada  pea  but  are  not  usu- 
ally available  at  sufficiently  low  prices  to  be  used  either  for 
feeding  pigeons  or  fowls.  Occasionally  poorer  grades  of 
such  feeds  are  available  at  reasonable  prices  for  such  feed- 
ing. Garden  peas  will  successfully  replace  Canada  peas  for 
feeding  pigeons  although  they  are  not  so  well  liked  by  the 

71 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

pigeons  add  not  in  special  favor  with  those  who  keep 
pigeons. 

SOY  BEANS  AND  SOY  BEAN  MEAL 

Soy  beans  are  raised  very  extensively  in  Japan  and 
China  and  used  both  for  human  food  and  feed  for  animals 
in  those  countries.  The  bean  contains  from  16  to  21  per 
cent  of  oil  and  more  crude  protein  than  any  other  seed  or 
grain  used  as  a  feed.  Soy  beans  have  not  been  raised  much 
in  this  country  except  as  a  forage  crop  for  stock  but  are 
being  raised  more  extensively  throughout  the  southern 
part  of  the  United  States  where  mills  have  been  erected  for 
handling  this  seed.  They  are  a  leguminous  crop  which  is 
being  used  very  extensively  in  the  South  as  a  green  crop 
to  improve  and  enrich  the  soil.  Poultry  do  not  relish  soy 
beans  either  raw  or  in  the  cracked  form  but  will  eat  soy 
bean  meal  fairly  freely  where  it  is  mixed  with  other  ground 
feeds.  Oil  is  extracted  in  the  process  of  manufacture  and 
the  soy  bean  meal  produced  in  this  process  becomes  avail- 
able as  a  feed  for  stock  and  poultry  and  is  also  used  as  a 
fertilizer.  The  oil  is  used  for  human  food  and  commer- 
cial purposes. 

Soy  bean  meal  contains  the  same  amount  of  digestible 
protein  as  cottonseed  meal  and  is  considerably  higher  in 
carbohydrates.  Some  soy  been  meal  is  being  used  in  the 
South  and  to  a  less  extent  in  the  North  as  a  poultry  feed, 
both  in  commercial  mash  feeds  and  in  rations  mixed  at 
home.  A  large  amount  of  this  feed  is  imported  on  the 
Pacific  Coast  from  Japan  and  China  and  is  being  ex- 

72 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

tensively  used  in  that  section  of  the  country  as  a  feed  for 
poultry  and  dairy  cattle.  It  is  valuable  for  growing  chick- 
ens as  well  as  for  egg  production  on  account  of  its  high 
protein  and  mineral  content. 

In  experiments  conducted  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  it  was  found  that  soy  bean  meal  was  a  good 
feed  for  laying  hens  but  not  nearly  equal  to  the  animal 
protein  feeds,  such  as  meat  scrap  or  fish  scrap.  A  mash 
for  laying  hens  in  which  the  high  protein  feed  was  made 
up  of  10  per  cent  of  soy  bean  meal  and  15  per  cent  of 
meat  scrap  gave  fairly  satisfactory  results  but  not  as  good 
results  as  a  mash  containing  25  per  cent  of  meat  scrap. 

COWPEAS  AND  BEANS 

Cowpeas  are  another  leguminous  crop  which  is  grown 
considerably  in  the  South  and  turned  under  as  a  soil  im- 
prover. The  cowpea  is  beanlike  in  shape,  the  seed  is  not 
palatable  or  much  relished  by  poultry,  but  in  some  sec- 
tions of  the  South  these  seeds  are  fed  on  the  vines 
when  a  considerable  amount  of  them  is  eaten.  The  cowpea 
is  also  used  as  a  substitute  for  Canada  peas  in  the  rations 
for  pigeons  but  is  not  so  well  liked  for  that  purpose  as  the 
Canada  peas.  The  cowpea  is  quite  similar  to  the  field  pea 
in  composition  and  contains  considerably  less  fibre  than 
that  seed. 

The  common  field  bean  is  used  extensively  as  a  human 
food  in  this  country  and  poor  grades  or  damaged  lots  are 
sometimes  available  for  feeding  poultry.  This  seed  is  too 
hard  to  be  adapted  as  a  poultry  feed  in  its  raw  state  and 

73 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

should  always  be  cooked  or  soaked  for  poultry.  When 
cooked  it  is  very  palatable  and  much  relished  by  fowls.  It 
is  quite  high  in  protein  as  are  all  the  other  legumes  and 
should  be  fed  with  carbonaceous  feeds  such  as  corn. 

PEANUTS  AND  PEANUT  MEAL 

The  peanut  is  gradually  becoming  a  crop  of  consider- 
able importance  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  United 
States  where  it  is  used  largely  in  the  manufacture  of  oil 
and  of  peanut  meal  or  peanut  cake.  The  plant  is  often 
used  as  a  hog  feed  by  allowing  the  hogs  to  harvest  both 
the  peanuts  and  the  plants  in  the  field.  If  fed  to  hogs  in 
too  large  quantities  it  will  produce  soft  pork.  While  this  is 
a  comparatively  new  industry  a  considerable  amount  of 
peanut  meal  is  now  being  produced,  of  which  some  is  used 
for  stock  and  poultry  feeding.  This  meal  is  also  being  used 
with  considerable  success  in  the  commercial  fattening  of 
poultry,  for  which  purpose  it  has  been  only  recently  tried. 

Peanut  meal  from  hulled  peanuts  contains  over  47  per 
cent  crude  protein  which  is  higher  in  crude  protein  than 
cottonseed  meal.  Peanut  meal  made  from  unhulled  nuts, 
or  meal  which  has  been  adulterated  by  the  addition  of 
peanut  hulls,  is  lower  in  crude  protein  and  much  higher 
in  fiber  than  peanut  meal  without  hulls,  the  analysis  de- 
pending on  the  amount  of  hulls  included.  The  addition  of 
hulls  greatly  decreases  the  feeding  value  of  the  meal  so 
that  some  grades  of  peanut  meal  contain  as  low  as  28  per 
cent  crude  protein  and  as  much  as  23  per  cent  fibre.  A 
small  per  cent  of  peanut  meal  is  used  quite  extensively  in 

74 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

the  commercial  mash  feeds  for  poultry.  In  experiments 
conducted  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  peanut 
meal  was  used  successfully  to  replace  part  of  the  meat 
scrap  the  same  as  soy  bean  meal  and  cottonseed  meal  and 
proved  as  efficient  a  food  for  poultry  as  soy  bean  meal  but 
not  as  good  as  cottonseed  meal.  Peanut  meal  is  an  espe- 
cially valuable  ingredient  in  fattening  mashes. 

COCOANUT  MEAL 

Cocoanut  meal  is  the  residue  produced  in  manufac- 
turing oil  from  the  cocoanut  and  is  considerably  lower  in 
crude  protein  than  linseed  or  cottonseed  meal  but  contains 
more  crude  protein  and  fat  than  bran  and  has  a  much 
higher  value  as  a  stock  feed  than  that  product.  No  ex- 
periments have  been  conducted  with  cocoanut  meal  for 
poultry  but  a  small  per  cent  is  sometimes  used  in  commer- 
cial mashes.  Cocoanut  meal  by  itself  will  turn  rancid  if 
kept  longer  than  a  few  weeks  in  warm  weather  but  a  small 
amount  in  a  commercial  mash  does  not  appear  to  depre- 
ciate materially. 

COTTONSEED  MEAL 

Cotton  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  valuable  crops 
produced  in  this  country  and  in  1918,  11,700,000  bales  of 
500  pounds  each  were  raised  in  the  .southern  part  of  this 
country.  This  crop  gave  about  6,000,000  tons  of  cotton- 
seed as  a  by-product,  and  since  a  ton  of  cottonseed  pro- 
duces about  732  pounds  of  cake  and  meal,  841  pounds  of 
hulls,  280  pounds  of  crude  oil  and  27  pounds  of  linters 

75 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

or  short  fiber,  a  very  large  amount  of  cake  or  meal  was 
produced  for  feed  or  to  be  used  as  a  fertilizer.  Cotton- 
seed itself  used  to  be  fed  to  stock  but  very  little  is  fed  now 
because  of  the  high  value  of  cottonseed  oil  and  cotton- 
seed meal.  The  oil  is  pressed  out  of  the  cottonseed  ker- 
nels by  heating  and  crushing,  leaving  as  a  residue  the  cot- 
tonseed cake.  This  cake  is  finely  ground,  making  cotton- 
seed meal,  and  sold  largely  in  that  form  in  Eastern  and 
Central  States.  Cottonseed  cake  is  also  broken  into  small 
pieces  for  cattle  and  sheep  feeding  instead  of  being 
ground.  About  one-fourth  of  the  crop  of  this  country  is 
exported,  usually  in  the  form  of  whole  cake.  Cottonseed 
meal  is  the  only  form  in  which  cottonseed  products  are  fed 
to  poultry. 

Cottonseed  meal  varies  greatly  in  quality,  depending  on 
its  protein  quality  and  its  freshness,  and  should  be  bought 
on  a  guaranteed  analysis.  Standards  for  different  grades 
have  been  fixed  as  follows : 

Choice  cottonseed  meal  must  be  perfectly  sound  and  sweet  in  odor, 
yellow,  not  brown  or  reddish,  free  from  excess  of  lint,  and  must  con- 
tain at  least  41  per  cent  of  crude  protein. 

Prime  cottonseed  meal  must  be  of  sweet  odor,  reasonably  bright  in 
color,  and  must  contain  at  least  38.6  per  cent  of  crude  protein. 

Good  cottonseed  meal  must  be  of  sweet  odor,  reasonably  bright  in 
color,  and  must  contain  at  least  36  per  cent  of  crude  protein. 

Cottonseed  feed  is  a  mixture  of  cotton  seed  meal  and  cottonseed 
hulls,  containing  less  than  36  per  cent  crude  protein. 

Dark  or  dull  color  may  be  due  to  age,  to  adulteration 
with  hulls,  to  fermentation,  or  to  over-heating  during  the 
process  of  cooking.  All  of  these  changes  reduce  the  feed- 
ing value  of  the  meal.  The  crude  protein  content  of  cot- 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

tonseed  feed  is  very  variable,  depending  on  the  per  cent 
of  hulls  used  in  making  this  feed,  thus  making  it  very  es- 
sential that  cottonseed  feed  be  bought  only  on  a  guaran- 
teed analysis.  A  high  fiber  content  makes  cottonseed  feed 
a  much  less  desirable  poultry  feed  than  cottonseed  meal, 
as  fowls  do  not  utilize  fiber  to  as  good  advantage  as  do 
livestock. 

Cold  compress  cottonseed  cake  is  produced  without 
heating  or  crushing  the  seed  and  usually  contains  a  larger 
per  cent  of  hulls  than  the  cake  produced  by  heating,  so 
that  its  value  depends  entirely  on  its  crude  protein  content. 
This  product  is  sometimes  called  "caddo  cake."  Cotton- 
seed hulls  are  used  somewhat  in  the  South  as  roughage  for 
feeding  cattle  but  contain  very  little  food  value.  They 
have  no  place  in  feeding  poultry  but  have  been  used 
some  in  the  South  as  a  litter  for  poultry  houses  for  which 
purpose  they  are  quite  satisfactory.  The  use  and  value 
of  cottonseed  meal  is  discussed  more  in  detail  on  page 
148  under  the  "Value  of  Animal  Protein  Feeds." 

FLAX  SEED  AND  LINSEED  MEAL 

Flax  seed  is  raised  principally  in  the  Dakotas,  Montana, 
and  Minnesota.  In  1919,  8,919,000  bushels  were  pro- 
duced which  is  only  about  half  of  the  average  production 
of  the  five  preceding  years.  The  yearly  production  during 
the  period  1900  to  1905  was  three  times  as  great  as  in 
1918  so  that  much  less  of  the  flax  seed  by-products  is  now 
available  for  feeding  stock  and  poultry  than  was  pro- 

77 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

duced  some  years  ago.  The  oil  of  flax  seed  may  be  re- 
moved either  by  crushing  and  pressure,  which  method  is 
called  the  old  process,  or  by  dissolving  the  oil  from  the 
crushed  seed  by  the  use  of  naphtha,  giving  as  a  residue 
new  process  oil  meal.  The  term  linseed  meal,  oil  meal, 
and  linseed  oil  meal  are  all  used  interchangeably.  Nearly 
all  the  linseed  meal  produced  in  the  United  States  is  pro- 
duced by  the  old  process  and  called  old  process  linseed 
meal. 

A  test  to  determine  whether  the  oil  meal  is  made  by  the 
old  or  new  process  may  be  easily  made  by  putting  a  level 
teaspoonful  of  puverized  meal  into  a  glass,  adding  10 
teaspoonfuls  of  boiling  hot  water  and  stirring  the  mixture 
thoroughly.  If  it  is  the  new  process  product  the  meal  will 
settle  in  one  hour,  leaving  clear  water  on  top,  while  if  it 
is  old  process  meal  the  solution  will  remain  jelly-like. 
New  process  meal  contains  about  3  per  cent  more  crude 
protein  but  only  slightly  more  digestible  protein  than 
old  process  meal,  while  the  old  process  meal  contains  more 
oil  or  fat  than  meal  made  by  the  new  process. 

Another  flax  seed  by-product  is  flax  feed,  which  con- 
sists of  flax  screenings  including  weed  seeds  and  other 
waste  products.  This  product  is  ordinarily  used  in  mixed 
feeds  and  its  value  depends  entirely  upon  its  composition, 
but  it  is  likely  to  be  very  much  lower  in  food  value  than 
linseed  meal.  Flax  plant  by-products  consist  of  flax  pods, 
broken  flax  seeds,  and  pieces  of  stems  and  are  usually 
of  low  food  values.  Unscreened  flax  oil  feed  is  of  less 
value  than  linseed  meal  as  it  contains  screenings. 

78 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

Linseed  meal  is  the  only  one  of  these  flax  seed  products 
used  to  any  material  extent  in  feeding  poultry.  Where 
used  in  limited  quantities  it  is  a  good  feed  as  it  is  rich  in 
protein  and  has  a  slightly  laxative  effect.  It  is  of  especial 
value  as  a  tonic  for  fowls  or  stock  in  poor  condition  and 
its  use  will  give  a  glossy  appearance  to  the  feathers  of 
poultry.  It  is  rich  in  protein  and  mineral  elements,  mak- 
ing it  an  especially  good  feed  to  use  while  fowls  are  molt- 
ing. The  use  of  about  5  per  cent  in  the  mash  mixture  is 
beneficial  just  previous  to  and  during  the  molting  period, 
that  is,  from  June  15  to  December  15.  Linseed  meal  is 
also  of  value  for  growing  chickens  as  they  are  continually 
renewing  their  feathers.  About  five  per  cent  may  be  used 
in  the  mash  for  growing  chickens  to  good  advantage. 
This  feed  is  more  expensive  as  a  source  of  protein  than 
some  of  the  other  high  protein  feeds  but  a  small  per  cent 
in  the  ration  is  worth  while  as  a  tonic  and  regulator.  Most 
of  the  commercial  mixed  poultry  mashes  contain  some  lin- 
seed meal. 

HEMP  SEED 

Hemp  seed  is  rarely  fed  to  fowls  and  is  usually  too 
high  in  price  for  such  stock  but  it  is  used  .somewhat  in  the 
feeding  of  pigeons,  especially  during  the  molting  period. 
Its  use  for  pigeons  corresponds  to  the  use  of  linseed  meal 
during  the  molting  period  for  fowls,  the  hemp  seed  being 
used  for  pigeons  as  they  are  usually  only  fed  whole  or 
cracked  grains  and  no  ground  feeds.  Only  about  5  per 
cent  of  hemp  seed  is  used  in  a  pigeon  feed. 

79 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

RICE 

The  raising  of  rice  in  this  country  is  rapidly  increas- 
ing, the  bulk  of  the  crop  being  produced  in  Louisiana, 
Texas,  Arkansas,  and  California.  In  1919,  41,059,000 
bushels  of  rice  were  produced  in  the  United  States,  nearly 
all  of  which  was  used  for  human  consumption  in  the  form 
of  polished  rice.  Polished  rice  is  produced  by  removing 
the  rice  hull  and  the  outer  skin  of  the  rice  kernel  called 
the  rice  bran.  The  kernel  is  then  polished,  producing 
another  by-product  called  rice  polish,  and  leaving  the 
finished  polished  rice  for  human  use.  A  sack  of  rough 
rice  containing  162  pounds  will  give  about  100  pounds  of 
polished  rice,  20  pounds  of  rice  bran,  6  pounds  of  rice 
polish  and  32  pounds  of  hulls. 

Rice  hulls  are  worthless  as  a  feed  and  are  apt  to  prove 
dangerous  and  irritating  to  the  walls  of  the  intestines. 
Rice  bran  where  not  adulterated  with  hulls,  and  which 
does  not  contain  over  12  per  cent  fiber  is  a  nutritious  feed 
when  used  in  limited  quantities  with  other  feeds.  The 
rice  oil  or  fat  in  rice  bran  will  become  rancid  if  this  feed 
is  stored  for  any  considerable  time,  making  it  unpalatable 
for  stock  or  poultry.  Rice  polish  has  a  feeding  value  for 
stock  about  equal  to  corn  but  this  product  is  used  up  al- 
most entirely  in  the  various  mechanical  arts.  Poor  grades 
of  rice  and  broken  rice  are  used  more  or  less  for  feeding 
poultry  and  pigeons  and  a  small  per  cent  is  often  fed  in 
commercial  scratch  feeds,  especially  in  commercial  chick 
feeds. 

Rice  is  of  especial  value  in  adding  variety  to  chick 

80 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

feeds  on  account  of  its  small  size  and  the  fact  that  it  will 
keep  well  if  kept  dry,  without  danger  of  heating.  Some 
of  the  grains  used  in  chick  feeds  such  as  cracked  corn  are 
apt  to  heat  during  the  spring  months  unless  thoroughly 
kiln  dried.  Even  these  lower  grades  of  rice  are  usually  too 
high  priced  on  account  of  their  value  as  a  human  food  to 
be  used  much  for  poultry.  Rice  is  the  highest  in  carbo- 
hydrates of  all  the  cereals  but  is  rather  low  in  crude 
protein  and  fat.  This  grain  appears  to  have  a  feeding 
value  about  equal  to  corn  for  live  stock  and  probably 
not  quite  so  much  as  this  for  poultry  as  it  is  not  relished 
or  liked  by  poultry  nearly  so  well  as  corn  or  wheat. 

Polished  rice  is  very  deficient  in  some  of  the  products 
essential  to  the  maintenance  of  life.  If  it  is  given  to 
poultry  as  the  only  source  of  feed  it  will  quickly  produce 
the  results  caused  by  a  feed  deficient  in  certain  essential 
elements.  Birds  fed  on  polished  rice  alone  become  af- 
fected with  a  condition  called  polyneuritis,  the  symptoms 
of  which  are  decreased  weight  and  the  drawing  up  of  the 
muscles  and  nerves,  indicated  by  the  drawing  back  or  to 
one  side  of  the  head  and  also  of  other  muscles  and  nerves 
on  other  parts  of  the  body.  If  rice  bran  and  rice  polish 
are  fed  with  the  polished  rice  this  injurious  effect  on  the 
muscular  and  nervous  systems  is  not  apparent. 


81 


CHAPTER  VII 

ANIMAL  PROTEIN,  MILK  AND  MISCELLANEOUS  FEEDS 

Packing  House  By-Products.  Large  quantities  of  by- 
products are  produced  at  the  packing  houses  which  are 
used  in  stock  and  poultry  feeds.  These  products  include 
meat  scrap,  meat  meal,  tankage,  and  dried  blood  or  blood 
meal.  All  of  these  feeds  are  very  rich  in  highly  digestible 
protein  and  with  the  exception  of  blood  contain  consider- 
able mineral  matter  in  the  form  of  lime  and  phosphoric 
acid.  Meat  scrap  and  tankage  are  made  from  fresh  meat 
scraps  and  fat  trimmings,  from  which  the  fat  is  rendered 
by  being  drawn  off  in  a  liquid  form  after  the  scraps  have 
been  cooked  by  steam  under  a  high  pressure.  The  scraps 
are  then  dried  and  ground  into  a  meal,  giving  a  product 
which  contains  from  40  to  50  per  cent  of  crude  protein, 
and  from  i  to  10  per  cent  of  fat.  The  composition  of  this 
product  varies  greatly  and  it  should  always  be  bought  on  3 
guaranteed  analysis. 

Blood  meal  usually  contains  a  much  higher  per  cent  of 
crude  protein  than  meat  scraps  but  much  less  of  mineral 
matter,  since  it  does  not  contain  any  bone.  Blood  meal  is 
used  up  largely  in  commercial  calf  meal  and  mixed  mashes 
while  meat  scraps  have  a  very  extensive  sale  as  a  poultry 
feed.  Blood  meal  is  sometimes  added  to  the  meat  scrap 
to  increase  the  protein  content.  The  average  home  made 

82 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

mash  for  poultry  contains  from  5  to  30  per  cent  of  meat 
scrap,  making  ^/2  to  15  per  cent  of  the  total  ration  of 
meat  scrap.  These  meat  scraps,  however,  are  also  used 
extensively  in  commercial  mixed  mashes.  Commercial 
dried  meat  scrap  prepared  in  this  form  will  keep  in  good 
condition  for  many  months  if  kept  in  a  moderately  cool 
and  dry  place.  Meat  scrap  or  some  product  of  this  nature 
which  furnishes  protein  of  animal  origin  has  been  found 
to  be  essential  in  securing  the  best  results  both  in  growing 
poultry  and  in  the  production  of  eggs. 

Feeding  tests  with  laying  hens  indicate  that  a  mash  con- 
taining from  18  to  20  per  cent  of  a  good  grade  of  meat 
scrap  is  most  economical.  Slightly  better  production 
may  perhaps  be  secured  by  a  higher  per  cent  of  meat  scrap 
but  the  extra  meat  scrap  does  not  produce  the  efficiency 
that  is  secured  by  smaller  percentages.  Some  of  the 
heavier  breeds  of  fowls,  especially  Brahmas  or  Plymouth 
Rocks,  which  tend  to  become  too  fat,  may  be  kept  in  good 
condition  by  feeding  a  mash  containing  a  lower  percent- 
age of  meat  scrap,  about  15  to  18  per  cent. 

The  quality  of  meat  scrap  should  be  carefully  deter- 
mined by  its  appearance  and  odor  and  a  more  careful  test 
can  be  made  by  pouring  boiling  water  on  a  small  amount 
of  meat  .scrap  and  noticing  the  odor  of  the  steaming 
product  which  should  be  like  fresh  scorched  meat.  Meat 
scrap  and  all  of  the  animal  protein  feeds  should  be  bought 
strictly  on  their  protein  analysis,  the  protein  content  in- 
dicating the  value  of  the  product.  Oftentimes  the  high 
protein  meat  feeds  are  cheaper  considering  their  protein 

83 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

content  than  are  the  products  containing  less  protein. 
Good  grades  of  meat  scrap  usually  range  from  50  to  70 
per  cent  of  protein. 

Tankage  of  good  grades  gives  good  results  in  feeding 
laying  hens  in  place  of  meat  scrap  and  is  used  consider- 
ably in  the  Central  West  for  poultry  feeding.  It  appears 
to  be  about  equal  to  meat  scrap  in  feeding  value  for  poul- 
try and  often  can  be  purchased  at  a  considerably  lower 
cost  considering  its  protein  content.  Pork  cracklings  may 
be  used  in  place  of  meat  scrap  but  does  not  give  as  good 
results. 

All  experiments  with  chickens,  fowls,  and  ducks  have 
indicated  the  need  of  an  animal  protein  feed  in  the  ration 
and  the  much  greater  value  of  the  animal  proteins  over 
the  vegetable  proteins  for  feed  purposes.  The  finer  or 
sifted  forms  of  meat  scrap  are  used  for  small  chick  feed- 
ing and  the  coarser  sizes  for  large  chicks  and  mature 
fowls. 

FRESH  MEAT  AND  BONE 

Fresh  meat  is  fed  to  poultry  to  a  limited  extent,  es- 
pecially horse  flesh,  and  is  greatly  relished  by  fowls.  In 
sections  where  there  are  a  large  number  of  poultry  farms, 
like  parts  of  California,  an  extensive  business  is  carried 
on  in  furnishing  fresh  horse  meat  for  poultry  feeding. 
Care  must  be  used  to  see  that  no  diseased  or  decayed  flesh 
is  used  when  fresh  meat  scraps  are  fed,  as  such  products 
will  decompose  very  rapidly,  especially  in  warm  weather. 
It  is  easiest  to  feed  fresh  meats  in  cold  weather  when  the 

84 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

normal  temperature  is  low  enough  to  keep  the  flesh  in 
good  condition.  The  sterilization  used  in  making  dried 
meat  scraps  kills  all  the  disease  germs  which  may  be  in 
the  fresh  flesh.  During  cool  and  cold  weather,  fresh  meat 
products,  such  as  injured  horses  and  other  animals  not 
commonly  used  for  human  food,  are  fed  to  poultry  either 
ground  up  or  in  whole  chunks. 

Fresh  green  bone  and  some  scraps  are  secured  from 
various  markets  and  local  butchers,  and  fed  to  poultry 
after  being  run  through  a  bone  grinder.  Small  bone 
grinders  operated  by  hand  power  are  used  where  only  a 
few  hens  are  to  be  fed,  but  a  power  grinder  is  essential 
where  this  product  is  to  be  ground  up  for  any  consider- 
able number  of  fowls.  No  satisfactory  method  has  been 
found  to  preserve  fresh  meat  to  feed  to  poultry,  other  than 
the  commercial  process  of  making  meat  scrap  which  in- 
volves extensive  and  expensive  machinery,  making  it  im- 
practical to  preserve  any  quantity  of  meat  in  a  small  way 
for  this  purpose. 

Bone  meal  and  ground  or  crushed  bone  are  fed  to  a 
small  extent  to  poultry  either  by  adding  from  2  to  5  per 
cent  of  these  products  to  the  mash  or  by  keeping  one  of 
them  before  the  growing  chickens.  These  mineral  prod- 
ucts are  sometimes  fed  to  laying  hens,  but  their  use  is  not 
general.  Where  the  rations  are  deficient  in  lime  (cal- 
cium) and  phosphorus  the  necessary  mineral  matter  can 
be  most  easily  and  cheaply  supplied  by  these  bone  feeds. 
The  meat  scraps  used  in  feeding  poultry  usually  contain 
considerable  bone,  thus  furnishing  a  sufficient  amount  of 

85 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

mineral  matter  without  the  addition  of  any  extra  bone 
meal.  Ground  rock  phosphate  is  usually  a  cheap  source 
of  mineral  matter  and  may  be  used  in  place  of  ground 
bone.  Freshly  ground  bone,  fed  at  the  rate  of  from  one- 
half  to  three-fourths  of  an  ounce  per  hen  daily  will  take 
the  place  of  meat  scrap  in  the  mash  for  laying  hens  and  is 
greatly  relished  by  them.  Too  much  of  this  fresh  bone 
will  cause  diarrhoea  and  looseness  of  the  bowels.  As  a 
rule  the  use  of  this  green-cut  bone  involves  too  much 
labor,  time  and  expense  to  make  its  use  advisable  where 
any  considerable  number  of  fowls  are  kept. 

FISH    MEAL 

Fish  meal  is  made  from  the  waste  parts  of  fish  products 
as  a  by-product  from  fish  canneries  and  from  the  manu- 
facture of  glue  and  similar  products.  In  some  cases  fresh 
fish  not  suitable  or  adapted  for  use  as  a  human  food  is  also 
made  into  fish  scrap.  Fish  meal  and  scrap  give  good  re- 
sults as  a  poultry  feed  and  may  be  used  to  replace  all  or 
part  of  the  meat  scrap  to  advantage.  From  experiments 
reported  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  fish 
meal  appears  to  be  equal  to  meat  scrap  of  the  same  protein 
content.  It  is  considerably  higher  in  mineral  matter  than 
most  meat  scrap,  a  fact  which  helps  to  make  it  a  good 
poultry  feed  and  also  of  special  value  in  the  mash  for 
baby  and  growing  chickens. 

Along  the  seashore,  especially  in  sections  where  ducks 
are  produced  extensively  as  on  Long  Island,  fish  are 
caught,  boiled  up,  and  used  extensively  in  feeding  ducks 

86 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

and  to  some  extent  to  poultry.  Fresh  fish  cooked  in  this 
manner  are  greatly  relished  by  all  kinds  of  poultry  and 
make  a  splendid  feed.  Ducks  grown  as  green  ducks  and 
marketed  when  from  8  to  12  weeks  of  age  require  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  animal  protein  such  as  is  furnished 
by  fish  products  or  meat  products,  but  in  feeding  fresh 
fish  it  is  advisable  to  eliminate  the  fish  from  the  ration  two 
weeks  before  the  birds  are  to  be  marketed  to  avoid  any 
possible  taste  in  the  flesh  due  to  the  use  of  this  fresh  fish. 

A  considerable  number  of  the  dried  fish  products  are 
now  on  the  market  for  poultry  feeding  and  come  from 
many  sources.  The  fish  scrap  made  from  whole  fish  is 
usually  a  much  better  feed  than  the  fish  meals  which  are 
residue  products.  The  high  prices  of  meat  scrap  during 
the  war  period  greatly  stimulated  the  trade  in  fish  meal 
and  fish  scrap.  These  products,  like  meat  scrap  and  other 
high  animal  protein  products,  should  be  bought  on  their 
protein  analysis  and  their  value  based  on  the  analysis  as 
compared  to  similar  grades  of  meat  scrap.  Some  grades 
of  fish  scrap  cost  just  as  much  as  the  same  grades  of 
meat  scrap,  in  which  case  the  meat  scrap  is  usually 
selected.  In  some  sections  and  under  certain  conditions  a 
good  quality  of  fish  scrap  can  be  purchased  much  cheaper 
than  meat  scrap,  making  it  a  very  good  feed. 

The  oil  content  of  the  fish  meals  varies  greatly  but  a 
moderate  variation  in  the  oil  content  does  not  appear  to 
be  in  any  way  injurious  to  the  fowls,  although  fish  meal 
containing  a  high  fat  content  is  apt  to  spoil  more  quickly. 
Fish  meal  with  a  quite  high  oil  content  has  been  fed  in 

87 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

a  small  way  to  poultry  without  any  effect  on  the  taste  of 
the  eggs  or  the  poultry  flesh.  Similar  experiments  with 
hogs  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  on  a  more 
extensive  scale  have  shown  that  the  high  oil  content  was 
not  detrimental  and  even  added  some  value  to  the  feed. 

MILK 

Milk  is  one  of  the  most  complete  and  easily  digested 
foods,  containing  all  the  nutrients  necessary  to  sustain 
life  and  is  of  especial  value  for  young  and  growing  poultry 
and  growing  animals.  The  protein  of  both  milk  and  of 
meat  products  has  a  much  greater  efficiency  for  growth  of 
poultry,  and  for  the  production  of  flesh  and  of  eggs,  than 
do  any  of  the  grain  proteins.  The  proteins  of  milk  are 
more  easily  digested  and  consequently  more  efficient  than 
the  proteins  of  meat  and  fish. 

Whole  milk  is  not  ordinarily  used  for  poultry  except 
in  a  few  cases  as  for  instance  the  first  feed  for  young 
chickens,  on  account  of  the  high  cost  of  the  milk.  Skim 
milk  is  rich  in  protein  and  ash  or  mineral  matter  and  is 
of  especial  value  in  building  up  the  muscles  and  bones. 
Skim  milk  from  separators  contains  about  3.8  per  cent 
crude  protein,  5.2  per  cent  nitrogen  free  extract,  and 
from  o.i  to  0.2  per  cent  fat.  The  nitrogen  free  extract 
in  sweet  skim  milk  is  practically  all  milk  sugar,  but  when 
the  milk  sours,  fermentation  occurs  until  about  0.8  of  one 
per  cent  of  this  sugar  is  changed  to  lactic  acid. 

Five  to  six  pounds  of  skim  milk  is  equal  to  about  one 
pound  of  meat  scrap  for  feeding  both  young  and  laying 

88 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

stock,  but  its  great  value  is  to  use  it  as  a  supplement  with 
other  feeds.  Milk  is  a  great  appetizer  and  its  use  will  in- 
crease the  amount  of  feed  consumed  materially.  It  also 
serves  as  a  regulator  of  the  chickens'  digestive  system,  and 
keeps  them  in  the  best  of  condition.  Milk  will  entirely 
take  the  place  of  green  feed  in  a  ration  both  for  chickens 
being  fattened  under  confined  conditions,  and  for  laying 
hens.  Growing  chicks  to  do  well  need  a  good  grass  range 
for  green  feed  and  exercise  even  when  milk  is  fed.  But- 
termilk is  sometimes  diluted  with  water  at  the  creameries 
and  in  some  cases  is  kept  in  dirty  containers  making  it 
necessary  to  watch  the  quality  of  the  product  in  buying 
this  material.  Whey  is  produced  in  making  cheese  and 
contains  the  milk  sugar,  the  albumin  and  most  of  the  ash 
contained  in  whole  milk.  It  is  high  in  water  and  contains 
only  about  6.5  per  cent  of  dry  matter  compared  with  about 
9  per  cent  of  dry  matter  in  buttermilk.  Whey  contains 
4.8  per  cent  milk  sugar,  0.3  per  cent  fat  and  only  0.8 
of  one  per  cent  protein.  Hence  is  not  nearly  so  good  a 
food  as  skim  or  buttermilk,  furnishing  far  less  protein 
than  those  products.  It  has  about  half  the  value  of  skim 
milk  as  a  feed  for  hogs  and  probably  a  similar  relative 
value  for  poultry,  although  n6  experiments  have  ever  been 
carried  on  with  poultry  to  determine  the  actual  food  value 
of  whey.  As  skim  milk  and  buttermilk  secured  from 
creameries  are  subject  to  infection  with  the  germs  of 
bovine  tuberculosis  it  is  advisable,  wherever  possible,  to 
get  this  product  from  creameries  where  the  milk  has  been 
pasteurized. 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

DRIED  MILK 

Dried  milk  products  are  fed  to  growing  chickens  and 
to  laying  hens  but  have  not  been  used  as  extensively  as  the 
liquid  milk  products  and  the  relative  value  is  not  yet  de- 
termined. It  is  quite  often  included  in  small  quantities 
in  commercial  mash  mixtures  and  especially  in  commer- 
cial ground  mashes  for  chickens  and  appears  to  be  an  ex- 
cellent feed.  Its  use  is  advised  for  small  chicks  when 
liquid  milk  products  are  not  available.  It  is  not  advis- 
able to  feed  over  15  per  cent  of  dried  milk  in  the 
mash  so  that  less  animal  protein  is  fed  in  a  laying 
mash  using  dried  milk  alone.  It  is  better  to  feed  this 
dried  milk  with  meat  scrap  for  laying  hens  but  suffi- 
cient protein  can  be  secured  in  the  mash  for  chicks  from 
the  dried  milk  product  alone  without  using  meat  scrap. 

SEMI-SOLID    AND    CONDENSED    BUTTERMILK 

Condensed  and  semi-solid  buttermilk  are  used  exten- 
sively in  the  commercial  fattening  of  poultry  with  excel- 
lent results;  especially  is  this  true  of  semi-solid  butter- 
milk, the  use  of  which  has  increased  very  greatly  in  the 
past  few  years.  This  semi-solid  buttermilk  is  produced 
quite  extensively  all  over  this  country  as  a  by-product 
from  creameries  and  when  put  up  in  barrels  or  kegs  will 
keep  in  good  condition  for  a  very  considerable  period  of 
time.  After  opening  this  milk,  keep  the  surface  covered 
with  water  to  prevent  decomposition. 

From  2  to  7  parts  of  water  are  added  to  the  semi-solid 
buttermilk  to  make  it  of  the  proper  feeding  consistency; 

90 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

some  poultrymen  feed  this  semi-solid  buttermilk  without 
any  dilution.  Only  from  2  to  3  parts  of  water  are  usually 
added  to  the  semi-solid  buttermilk  where  it  is  used  in  milk 
fattening  as  the  bleach  desired  is  obtained  by  the  amount 
of  milk  consumed  by  the  chickens.  As  high  as  7  parts  of 
water  may  be  added  where  the  semi-solid  buttermilk  is  to 
be  used  as  a  stimulant  for  laying  hens  which  materially 
reduce  the  cost  of  the  milk  in  the  production  of  eggs. 
Semi-solid  buttermilk  contains  from  12  to  16  per  cent 
protein,  and  dried  buttermilk  usually  contains  from  30  to 
35  per  cent  protein,  so  that  the  cost  of  the  protein  in  milk 
feeds  is  much  higher  than  in  meat  scrap  or  other  high 
protein  feeds.  The  digestibility  of  milk  is  higher  than 
from  these  other  feeds  and  the  milk  has  decided  tonic 
values  in  addition  to  its  protein  content.  It  appears  most 
economical  to  use  sufficient  milk  for  its  tonic  and  laxative 
effects  and  to  depend  upon  other  feeds  largely  as  a  source 
of  protein. 

The  buttermilk  is  fed  either  mixed  with  the  mash  or 
kept  before  the  fowls  as  a  drink.  Thirty  hens  will  consume 
about  one-half  pound  of  this  milk  daily  as  a  drink,  if  it 
is  diluted  with  2  parts  of  water  and  kept  before  them 
practically  all  of  the  time.  Semi-solid  buttermilk  rapidly 
dissolves  in  the  water  and  the  diluted  product  has  a  good 
consistency,  if  not  too  much  water  is  added.  All  kinds 
of  buttermilk  are  in  great  favor  for  feeding  young  chick- 
ens. In  many  places  where  ordinary  buttermilk  or  skim 
milk  is  not  available  the  semi-solid  product  is  being  used 
quite  extensively  in  the  feeding  of  small  chickens. 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

BEET  PULP 

Beet  pulp  is  a  by-product  of  the  manufacture  of  beet 
sugar,  the  juices  of  the  beets  having  been  extracted  by 
soaking  them  in  warm  water.  The  dry  matter  in  wet 
beet  pulp,  although  the  latter  contains  only  one  to  two  per 
cent  of  sugar,  has  sufficient  other  carbohydrates  to  make 
it  equal  to  a  similar  weight  of  dry  matter  in  root  crops. 
This  pulp  is  very  low  in  mineral  matter  and  contains  only 
a  small  amount  of  crude  protein.  Much  of  this  product 
is  fed  locally  in  a  wet  form  to  .stock  but  a  considerable 
amount  is  shipped  away  for  feeding.  As  it  will  absorb 
considerable  water  it  should  be  soaked  in  two  or  three 
times  its  weight  of  water  before  it  is  fed.  Beet  pulp  is 
used  somewhat  for  feeding  poultry,  as  a  feed  by  itself  and 
also  mixed  in  the  mash.  Poultry  do  not  especially  care 
for  soaked  beet  pulp  and  it  is  usually  fed  to  better  advan- 
tage mixed  in  the  mash  than  as  a  separate  feed. 

MOLASSES 

The  beet  molasses  produced  from  the  beet  sugar  refiner- 
ies contains  about  66  per  cent  of  nitrogen  free  extract, 
nearly  all  of  which  is  sugar.  The  crude  proteins  of  mo- 
lasses have  very  little  feeding  value.  Molasses  is  of  a 
laxative  nature  on  account  of  its  high  content  of  alkaline 
salts  as  well  as  other  purgatives.  It  is  considered  worth 
about  three-fourths  of  the  value  of  corn  as  a  stock  feed. 
Cane  molasses,  called  "black  strap"  is  produced  in  the 
manufacture  of  cane  .sugar  but  is  costive  in  its  action  if 
fed  in  large  quantities.  It  has  a  feeding  value  similar  to 

92 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

beet  molasses  but  is  too  high  priced  in  most  sections  for 
use  in  feeding  except  as  a  conditioner.  Most  of  the  mo- 
lasses available  for  feeding  is  used  up  in  commercial  mo- 
lasses feeds  in  which  the  molasses  is  usually  combined 
with  a  wide  variety  of  feed  products.  Molasses  combined 
with  good  by-products  makes  a  very  good  and  highly 
palatable  feed.  It  is  easy  to  use  molasses  to  cover  up 
feeds  either  very  high  in  fibre  or  of  poor  quality  and  low 
food  value  so  that  it  is  very  necessary  that  such  mixed 
feeds  be  secured  only  from  reliable  dealers  and  on  the 
basis  of  a  definite  guaranteed  composition.  Molasses  ab- 
sorbed by  sphagnum  moss  or  peat  is  called  molassine 
meal  and  is  of  value  as  a  feed.  It  is  usually  too  high  in 
price,  considering  its  molasses  content  to  be  an  economical 
feed.  Molasses  and  molasses  feeds  are  not  so  well 
adapted  for  poultry  feeding  as  for  feeding  livestock,  be- 
cause with  animals,  feeds  high  in  fiber  can  be  made  more 
palatable  by  the  addition  of  molasses.  Feeds  high  in 
fiber,  however,  are  not  adapted  for  poultry  even  though 
they  are  made  palatable  by  such  substances  as  molasses, 
since  poultry  are  unable  to  utilize  fiber  efficiently.  It 
would  appear  that  any  molasses  feeds  which  are  very 
low  in  fiber  content  would  be  of  considerable  value  and 
highly  palatable  to  poultry. 

DRIED  DISTILLERS'  GRAINS 

These  ars  the  by-products  secured  in  the  manufacture 
of  alcohol  and  other  liquors,  where  corn,  rye,  and  other 
cereals  are  ground  and  treated  with  a  solution  of  malt  to 

93 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

convert  the  starch  into  sugar.  Distillers'  grains  are  a 
bulky  product  containing  considerable  crude  protein, 
fiber,  fat  and  the  more  insoluble  parts  of  the  nitrogen 
free  extract.  It  is  a  very  good  product  when  made  from 
corn  and  is  about  equal  to  gluten  feed.  If  produced  from 
rye  instead  of  corn,  both  the  protein  content  and  feeding 
value  are  much  lower  and  not  so  well  adapted  for  feeding 
poultry.  Distillers'  grains  may  be  used  to  make  up  a 
small  part  of  the  poultry  mash. 

ACORNS 

Acorns  are  often  used  as  a  hog  feed  where  the  hogs 
pick  up  the  acorns  off  the  ground.  Turkeys  on  range 
will  pick  up  a  limited  number  of  acorns  and  appear  to 
thrive  on  them.  Cases  of  stock  poisoning  have  been  re- 
ported from  the  use  of  damaged  acorns  or  where  they 
have  been  fed  in  too  large  amounts.  Coarsely  ground 
acorns  were  reported  fed  to  laying  hens  in  England  with- 
out affecting  egg  yield. 

CONDIMENTAL  OR  STOCK  FEEDS 

Condimental  or  stock  feeds  are  extensively  advertised 
both  for  stock  and  for  poultry.  They  are  usually  made 
up  of  linseed  meal,  corn  meal  or  wheat  middlings,  mixed 
with  meat  scrap,  dried  buttermilk,  common  salt,  charcoal, 
anise,  fenugreek,  pepper,  epsom  salts,  copperas,  gentian, 
ginger  and  allspice.  Follow  the  directions  given  on  the 
boxes  of  these  feeds  furnished  by  the  manufacturer.  It 
is  sometimes  more  desirable  to  buy  the  condiments  and 

94 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

mix  such  a  feed  at  home  than  to  purchase  the  commercial 
stock  feeds.  Such  a  mixture  for  poultry  can  be  made  of 
equal  parts  of  red  pepper  or  ground  capsicum,  ground 
allspice,  ground  ginger,  ground  cloves  and  one-half  part 
of  ground  fenugreek  seed,  feeding  about  a  tablespoonful 
to  two  quarts  of  mash  two  or  three  times  weekly. 

MINERAL   FEEDS 

Mineral  matter  is  very  essential  in  the  feeding  of  poul- 
try but  is  usually  sufficiently  supplied  under  normal  feed- 
ing practices.  Mineral  substances  in  the  fowl's  body 
make  up  the  ash,  while  the  shell  of  the  egg  is  mineral  as 
well  as  part  of  the  egg  contents.  Oyster  and  clam  shells 
are  fed  to  fowls  to  provide  the  lime  used  in  the  formation 
of  the  egg  shell.  Oyster  shells  contain  about  97  per  cent 
of  carbonate  of  lime  and  clam  shells  have  about  the  same 
composition.  Experiments  with  calcium  feeding  to  laying 
hens  conducted  at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  ap- 
pears to  indicate  that  lack  of  calcium  in  the  ration  would 
materially  reduce  the  number  of  eggs  laid  and  similar  re- 
sults were  secured  at  the  New  York  Station  at  Geneva. 
The  iodin  combined  with  the  mineral  seems  to  be  of  con- 
siderable importance.  Limestone  grits  to  take  the  place 
both  of  oyster  shell  and  of  grit  are  being  used  in  an  experi- 
mental way  somewhat.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  calcium  is  as 
readily  available  in  the  form  of  grit  as  it  is  in  oyster  shell. 
Oyster  shell  contains  about  38  per  cent  calcium,  0.5  per 
cent  magnesium  and  0.5  per  cent  iron  with  a  small  amount 
of  sulphur  and  a  little  chlorin  but  no  phosphorus.  Lime- 

95 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

stone  grit  contains  about  30  per  cent  calcium,  6.5  per  cent 
magnesium  and  3.3  per  cent  iron. 

Bone  meal  and  ground  rock  phosphate  which  are  on  the 
market  in  very  fine  and  also  in  coarser  forms  are  used  in 
the  poultry  mash  to  furnish  mineral  matter  and  afford  the 
cheapest  and  best  sources  for  material  of  this  kind.  Bone 
meal  contains  about  21  per  cent  of  calcium,  10  per  cent 
of  phosphorus,  0.5  per  cent  of  sodium,  0.5  per  cent  of 
magnesium  and  a  little  potassium,  sulphur  and  iron.  Most 
of  the  meat  scraps  contain  a  considerable  amount  of  bone 
which  is  indicated  in  their  analyses  by  the  mineral  or  ash 
content.  Wheat  middlings,  bran,  milk  and  green  feeds  all 
supply  considerable  mineral  matter  to  fowls, 


CHAPTER  VIII 

GREEN  FEEDS 

Various  green  feeds  are  fed  to  poultry,  the  best  one  to 
use  depending  upon  the  availability  and  cheapness  of  the 
feed.  The  green  feeds  most  commonly  used  are  com- 
mon grass,  mangel  beets,  cabbages,  kale,  alfalfa,  sprouted 
oats,  rape  and  any  quick  growing  grain  which  may  be  fed 
as  a  forage  crop.  The  importance  of  the  use  of  green 
feeds  for  poultry  is  not  well  appreciated  and  far  better 
results  would  be  secured  from  fowls  if  more  attention  was 
paid  to  this  part  of  their  ration.  When  fowls  are  fed 
heavily,  forced  for  egg  production,  and  kept  under  more 
or  less  intensive  conditions,  the  value  of  green  feed  can 
hardly  be  overestimated.  Green  feed  supplies  consider- 
able mineral  matter  which  contains  certain  elements  that 
we  know  are  essential  to  life  and  reproduction  but  the 
nature  of  which  is  little  understood  as  is  discussed  more  in 
detail  on  page  43.  These  greens  supply  actual  food  which 
will  replace  a  considerable  amount  of  grains,  making  the 
digestion  of  these  other  grains  far  more  complete  and  at 
the  same  time  keeping  the  fowls  in  the  best  of  health. 
Fowls  fed  plenty  of  green  stuff  do  not  show  high  mortal- 
ity or  especially  detrimental  results  from  forced  feeding 
or  from  being  kept  under  intensive  conditions.  These 
green  feeds  also  add  bulk  to  the  ration,  which  is  of  con- 

97 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

siderable  value  where  so  much  highly  concentrated  feed  is 
used.  Where  no  green  feed  is  used  epsom  salts  will  assist 
in  keeping  the  fowl's  digestive  system  is  fair  condition, 
but  far  better  results  are  secured  by  natural  methods, 
using  green  feed.  Epsom  salts  used  for  this  purpose  are 
fed  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  dissolved  in  drinking  water 
for  100  hens,  used  once  every  week  or  ten  days.  The  ordi- 
nary growing  grasses  furnish  the  bulk  of  the  green  feed 
eaten  by  poultry  and  green  growing  grass  secured  by  the 
fowls  on  range  is  the  best  possible  source  of  green  feed. 

GRASSES 

Immature  grass  contains  a  much  larger  proportion  of 
crude  protein  than  does  hay  and  other  grasses  cut  at 
maturity  when  the  carbohydrates  have  been  formed,  but 
the  total  food  content  both  of  crude  protein  and  of  carbo- 
hydrates is  much  greater  if  the  hay  is  grown  to  maturity. 
Kentucky  blue  grass  or  June  grass  is  one  of  the  best 
grasses  for  pasture  and  it  is  also  one  of  the  richest  in 
crude  protein  and  fat  content.  This  grass  should  be 
gazed  lightly  in  the  spring  and  early  summer  so  that  it 
can  withstand  the  hot,  dry  weather  of  mid-summer  and 
freshen  up  and  make  splendid  grazing  in  the  fall  and 
winter.  It  is  one  of  thet  best  grasses  for  poultry  ranges 
or  yards  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  United  States. 
Timothy  is  one  of  the  best  hay  crops  in  the  northeastern 
states  but  not  so  good  a  pasture  grass  for  poultry  as  blue 
grass  or  red  top.  Red  top  is  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of 
climatic  conditions,  being  especially  useful  in  the  north 

98 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

and  northeastern  part  of  the  United  States  and  makes  a 
good  turf  but  is  not  so  good  for  pasture  as  blue  grass.  It 
takes  a  couple  of  years  to  make  a  good  sod  and  will  grow 
on  land  too  acid  for  other  kinds  of  grasses.  Orchard 
grass  will  grow  well  in  the  shade  but  grows  largely  in 
tufts  and  is  only  a  fair  pasture  grass. 

The  small  grains  make  excellent  pasture.  Fall  sown 
rye  and  wheat  make  splendid  late  fall  and  early  spring 
pasture  in  the  North,  and  oats  and  barley  are  good  forage 
crops  to  plant  in  the  spring. 

Meadow  fescue  does  well  in  the  same  territory  as 
timothy  and  is  a  very  good  long  season  pasture  grass. 
The  seed  is  usually  high  in  price  so  that  it  is  commonly 
used  in  mixtures  rather  than  as  a  grass  seed  by  itself.  If 
a  permanent  meadow  is  desired  a  combination  of  grasses 
should  usually  be  sown  and  clover  should  be  mixed  with 
the  other  grasses.  The  range  should  be  kept  in  good  con- 
dition and  if  the  grass  tends  to  get  ahead  of  the  fowls, 
pasture  it  with  some  kind  of  livestock,  such  as  cows  or 
sheep,  to  keep  the  grass  short  and  tender  for  the  poultry. 
The  stock  can  be  kept  away  from  the  watering  and  feed- 
ing places  used  for  the  poultry  but  putting  up  small  fence 
enclosures,  in  which  the  fowls  are  fed  and  watered.  If 
preferred  the  grass  may  be  cut  with  a  mowing  machine 
with  the  mover  set  high.  It  is  especially  desirable  on  a 
chick  range  to  keep  the  grass  short  as  tall  grass  takes  too 
long  to  dry  out  in  the  morning  while  the  young  chickens 
will  be  materially  harmed  by  wandering  through  high,  wet 
grass. 

99 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

Colony  houses  on  grass  range  should  be  moved  at  least 
once  a  year  to  prevent  the  grass  becoming  entirely  killed 
in  any  one  spot  and  if  any  spots  do  become  bare,  grass  and 
clover  seed  should  be  scratched  into  the  soil  early  in  the 
spring  to  get  a  new  stand  where  the  ground  is  bare.  In 
the  southern  part  of  this  country  the  grass  dries  up  in 
the  summer  and  gets  too  tough  and  dry  to  be  eaten  by  the 
fowls  or  chickens,  making  it  necessary  to  grow  forage 
crops  to  supply  green  feed  during  the  summer  and  early 
fall.  Farther  north  fowls  on  a  good  grass  range  will  get 
a  fair  amount  of  green  feed  during  the  summer  but  should 
be  supplied  with  additional  green  feed  during  the  winter 
months  when  there  is  no  green  grass  in  the  yards.  Ordi- 
narily sufficient  manure  will  be  dropped  by  the  fowls  in 
the  yards  and  on  the  range  to  keep  the  grass  range  and 
soil  well  fertilized. 

Bermuda  grass  is  the  best  pasture  grass  for  the  far 
South  and  makes  a  heavy,  permanent  sod  which  furnishes 
a  splendid  feed  from  spring  until  into  the  fall.  It  needs  to 
be  kept  closely  cropped  as  otherwise  it  will  become  hard 
and  wiry. 

Johnson  grass,  which  is  a  relative  of  the  sorghums,  is  a 
good  meadow  grass  for  the  South  but  has  a  spreading 
root  stalk  which  makes  it  difficult  to  eradicate.  It  is  ad- 
visable to  plow  it  every  two  or  three  years  on  account  of 
this  creeping  root  stalk  system.  This  grass  makes  a 
coarse  feed  and  will  give  a  large  amount  of  green  feed 
by  cutting  it  at  least  once  a  month,  chopping  it  up  finely 
and  mixing  it  in  with  a  poultry  mash. 

IOO 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

Sudan  grass  is  another  close  relative  of  the  sorghums 
which  will  produce  a  very  large  amount  of  desirable  green 
feed  to  be  cut  up  for  poultry  and  which  is  used  extensively 
for  that  purpose  in  California,  It  is  more  desirable  than 
Johnson  grass  as  it  has  a  more  leafy  stem  and  does  not 
tend  to  become  a  weed  pest,  being  easier  to  eradicate  if 
desired.  Although  it  makes  a  very  rank  growth  the  stems 
are  thin  and  tender.  Very  large  yields  per  acre  of  this 
grass  can  be  secured  in  the  South,  especially  in  sections 
where  it  is  grown  under  irrigation.  It  does  not  flourish  in 
high  altitudes  or  in  the  extreme  northern  States,  but  being 
fairly  drouth  resistant,  it  is  adapted  for  the  southwestern 
section  of  the  U.  S. 

LEGUMES   FOR  FORAGE  AND  FOR  HAY 

Leguminous  plants  have  a  very  high  protein  content 
and  also  contain  a  large  amount  of  mineral  matter,  being 
especially  rich  in  lime.  These  are  especially  desirable 
crops  to  grow  in  sections  where  they  will  make  a  good 
growth,  because  they  not  only  furnish  a  large  amount  of 
food  material  per  acre  but  enrich  the  land  by  adding  nitro- 
gen to  the  soil  as  well  as  furnishing  a  large  amount  of  im- 
portant vegetable  matter  or  humus.  Alfalfa  is  the  best 
legume  to  grow  for  poultry  wherever  it  will  produce  a 
good  crop.  It  is  one  of  the  best  crops  to  grow  whether 
it  is  to  be  cut  and  fed  as  green  forage,  to  be  made  into 
hay  and  later  fed  to  the  poultry,  or  to  be  used  as  pasture. 
In  sections  where  alfalfa  does  not  do  well  the  various 
clovers  are  desirable  crops  to  grow  and  will  serve  the  same 

101 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

purposes  as  the  alfalfa  but  are  not  as  desirable  a  crop. 
Consult  with  your  State  experiment  station  to  see  if  al- 
falfa will  do  well  in  your  section  and  secure  directions 
for  growing  alfalfa  and  other  forage  crops. 

Alfalfa  thrives  best  in  the  semi-arid  plans  region  and 
very  large  yields  are  secured  from  an  acre  of  land,  es- 
pecially heavy  crops  being  obtained  where  irrigation  is 
available  in  sections  having  a  mild  climate.  As  many  as 
9  to  12  cuttings  are  secured  in  a  season  under  the  best 
conditions  in  such  sections.  Alfalfa  requires  a  well- 
drained  soil,  rich  in  lime,  and  a  specially  well  prepared 
sod  bed.  It  is  being  grown  more  and  more  all  over  this 
country.  In  places  where  conditions  are  favorable  it  will 
hold  a  sod  for  many  years,  if  the  weather  is  not  too  ex- 
treme, and  makes  an  ideal  poultry  range  or  pasture.  Al- 
falfa should  be  cut  for  hay  as  soon  as  the  new  shoots  are 
well  .started  at  the  crown  of  the  plants  and  before  the 
stalks  get  woody.  As  large  a  proportion  of  leaf  as  possi- 
ble is  desired  for  poultry  and  great  care  should  be  used 
in  harvesting  alfalfa  so  as  not  to  lose  the  leaves. 

Ground  alfalfa  or  alfalfa  meal  is  not  as  valuable  as 
bran  as  a  feed  as  it  contains  .somewhat  less  crude 
protein  and  three  times  as  much  fiber,  but  is  useful 
in  the  ration  to  partially  replace  green  feed.  Alfalfa  is 
not  well  adapted  for  silage  but  is  occasionally  used  for 
that  purpose.  Alfalfa  meal  is  produced  extensively  in  this 
country,  the  product  varying  in  fineness  from  a  fine  meal 
to  a  coarse  product  containing  pieces  of  hay  one-fourth 
to  one-half  inch  long.  There  is  considerable  possibility 

102 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

of  adulteration  or  securing  poor  quality  products  in  al- 
falfa meal  as  coarse,  woody  alfalfa  stems  and  stalks  may 
be  ground  up  to  appear  like  good  alfalfa.  Buy  on  a 
guaranteed  composition  and  notice  especially  the  fiber 
content  which  in  the  best  grades  should  not  exceed  30 
per  cent.  As  very  little  fiber  is  utilized  by  poultry  it  is 
especially  advisable  to  consider  carefully  the  fiber  content 
of  all  feeds.  Alfalfa  meal  is  used  quite  extensively  in 
mixed  commercial  poultry  mashes,  which  feeds  sometimes 
contain  from  5  to  10  per  cent  of  this  meal.  It  is  also 
used  in  home  mixed-mashes  when  no  other  green  feed  is 
available,  using  7  per  cent  in  the  mash ;  that  is  7  pounds 
in  100  pounds  of  feed. 

RED  CLOVER 

Red  clover  is  another  legume  which  is  very  valuable  for 
feeding  poultry  and  is  raised  extensively  in  the  northern 
humid  section  of  this  country.  It  will  not  usually  live 
well  over  two  seasons  and  does  best  on  well-drained  soils 
rich  in  lime.  Although  only  one  or  two  cuttings  are 
usually  secured  the  yield  per  acre  is  quite  heavy.  Where 
alfalfa  cannot  be  grown  to  advantage  this  clover  is  one 
of  the  best  crops  to  grow  for  poultry  in  the  North  and 
Northeast  States,  either  in  the  pasture  mixed  with  other 
grasses  or  as  a  hay  or  forage  crop.  In  sections  where  the 
season  is  too  short  for  red  clover  to  mature  a  second  crop, 
the  cutting  secured  is  usually  called  rowen  and  makes  an 
especially  desirable  feed  for  poultry  as  it  contains  less 
of  the  coarse,  woody  fiber  than  the  first  crop.  Red  clover 

103 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

has  about  the  same  feeding  value  as  alfalfa  hay,  being  rich 
in  protein  and  lime,  but  slightly  lower  in  digestible  crude 
protein.  It  should  be  cut  for  hay  when  about  one-third  of 
the  heads  have  turned  brown  as  it  can  be  cured  to  better 
advantage  at  that  time  than  when  in  full  bloom. 

OTHER  CLOVERS 

Mammoth  clover  makes  a  very  coarse,  rangy  growth 
and  the  plant  is  usually  longer  lived  than  red  clover  but  it 
yields  only  one  crop  annually.  It  will  do  well  on  poorer 
and  lighter  land  than  red  clover  and  may  be  mixed  to  ad- 
vantage with  red  clover  seed. 

Alsike  clover  does  not  stand  up  as  well  as  the  other 
clovers  but  is  adapted  for  use  on  acid  or  wet  soil.  White 
clover  is  a  lower  creeping  perennial  which  has  a  wide 
range  of  growth  but  is  adapted  only  for  pasturage  for 
which  purpose  it  is  quite  desirable  in  the  North.  It  is  also 
grown  in  the  South  but  nearly  disappears  in  the  summer, 
freshening  up  again  in  the  fall. 

Sweet  clover  grows  widely  along  roadsides  and  rail- 
road tracks  and  will  do  well  on  many  soils  where  the  other 
clovers  will  not  grow.  Animals  have  to  become  accus- 
tomed to  using  sweet  clover  as  it  contains  a  bitter  com- 
pound which  they  do  not  like  when  first  eaten.  Sweet 
clover  should  be  sown  thickly  and  should  be  cut  when 
about  6  inches  high.  It  will  give  from  two  to  three  crops 
in  a  season. 

Crimson  clover  is  an  annual,  grown  principally  from 
New  Jersey  to  South  Carolina,  in  which  sections  it  is 

104 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

usually  sown  in  the  late  summer  or  early  fall  and  plowed 
under  as  a  green  crop  early  in  the  following  summer,  as 
it  will  not  live  through  this  summer.  If  grown  for  hay, 
for  which  purpose  it  is  not  as  well  adapted  as  are  the 
other  clovers,  it  should  be  cut  when  the  flowers  at  the 
base  of  the  heads  begin  to  fade.  Crimson  clover  is  not 
as  desirable  a  feed  as  the  other  clovers. 

A  combination  of  oats  with  the  field  or  Canada  pea 
makes  a  good  soiling  crop  if  cut  early  or  if  allowed  to 
mature  makes  a  very  nutritious  hay,  both  of  which  feeds 
are  especially  well  liked  by  poultry.  This  crop  is  adapted 
either  for  the  field  or  yard  in  which  the  hens  are  allowed 
to  range,  or  it  makes  an  excellent  feed  to  cut  up  while 
fresh  and  be  used  in  the  poultry  mash.  Cow  peas  and  soy 
beans  are  grown  extensively  as  a  forage  crop  in  the  South 
to  enrich  the  soil  but  are  not  well  adapted  for  poultry, 
although  poultry  will  eat  some  of  the  seeds  of  the  ma- 
tured crop. 

ROOTS  AND  TUBERS 

Roots  are  a  highly  desirable  feed  for  poultry  and  are 
used  considerably  for  that  purpose  in  the  northern  part 
of  this  country.  Root  crops  are  grown  and  fed  exten- 
sively to  stock  in  Canada  and  in  northern  Europe  as  these 
crops  are  especially  well  adapted  for  climates  where  the 
summers  are  cool.  Although  roots  are  very  high  in 
water  content  and  correspondingly  low  in  dry  matter,  they 
contain  dry  matter  which  is  highly  digestible.  Experi- 
ments in  feeding  cows  show  that  a  pound  of  the  dry  mat- 

105 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

ter  in  roots  has  about  the  same  value  as  a  pound  of  dry 
matter  in  grains.  The  value  of  roots  for  poultry  is  not 
so  much  for  their  food  content  as  for  the  succulence,  bulk 
and  beneficial  effect  which  they  have  on  the  fowls.  A 
ration  for  poultry  composed  of  whole  and  ground  grains 
is  highly  concentrated  and  needs  some  bulky  product  to 
make  it  less  forcing  to  the  fowls.  Root  crops  are  greatly 
relished  by  poultry  of  all  ages  and  are  usually  fed  by 
cutting  them  in  half  and  sticking  them  on  a  nail  where  the 
poultry  can  eat  them  freely  at  will. 

The  mangel  or  mangel  wurzel  is  one  of  the  best  root 
crops  to  grow  for  poultry  as  it  is  greatly  relished,  pro- 
duces a  very  large  yield  per  acre,  is  an  easy  crop  to  har- 
vest and  keeps  well.  Forty  tons  of  mangels  may  be  grown 
to  the  acre,  furnishing  8500  pounds  of  dry  matter.  It  is 
better  not  to  feed  roots  until  after  the  crop  has  been  har- 
vested and  stored  for  a  few  weeks  as  freshly  harvested 
roots  may  cause  diarrhea.  Sugar  beets  are  also  very  de- 
sirable as  a  feed  but  are  more  difficult  and  more  expensive 
to  raise  than  mangels  and  do  not  produce  a  large  amount 
of  dry  matter  per  acre.  Culled  beets  or  by-products  from 
sugar  factories  are  often  available  at  profitable  feeding 
prices. 

The  rutabaga  or  Swede  will  produce  about  5,000  pounds 
of  dry  matter  to  the  acre,  is  an  easy  crop  to  produce  and 
keeps  well.  This  root  is  not  quite  as  well  liked  by  fowls 
as  mangels  but  is  used  considerably  and  with  good  suc- 
cess in  feeding  poultry.  It  is  the  most  economical  root 
crop  next  to  the  mangels  to  produce  for  poultry.  Turnips 

106 


FIG.  4.     MANGEL  BEETS  PREPARED  FOR  FEEDING 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

do  not  keep  as  well  as  rutabagas  and  will  only  produce 
about  3,500  pounds  of  dry  matter  to  the  acre.  They  ma- 
ture quickly  and  are  of  value  to  sow  late  in  the  season  as 
a  catch  crop. 

Stock  carrots  will  produce  about  5,000  pounds  of  dry 
matter  to  the  acre  and  are  well  liked  by  poultry.  They 
are  not  as  easy  or  as  economical  a  crop  to  produce  and 
harvest  as  mangels  or  rutabagas  and  are  not  fed  exten- 
sively to  poultry. 

Potatoes  will  not  produce  dry  matter  nearly  as  eco- 
nomically as  these  root  crops  because  of  their  extensive 
use  as  a  human  food,  and  only  small  unmarketable  po- 
tatoes are  used  for  feeding  poultry.  A  yield  of  200  bush- 
els of  potatoes  to  the  acre  will  give  2,500  pounds  of  dry 
matter.  Potatoes  should  be  boiled  or  steamed  before 
being  fed  to  poultry  and  may  be  used  to  advantage  by 
mixing  them  in  with  the  mash.  Potato  sprouts  and  un- 
ripe potatoes  contain  a  poisonous  compound  called 
solanam  and  they  should  not  be  fed  to  fowls.  The  water 
in  which  potatoes  are  cooked  is  usually  bitter  and  it  is 
better  not  to  use  this  liquor  in  mixing  the  poultry  mash. 
Sweet  potatoes  are  grown  extensively  in  the  South  and 
when  cooked  are  greatly  relished  by  poultry.  They  are 
not  usually  fed  much  foi  this  purpose  because  of  their 
high  value  as  a  human  food.  One  hundred  hens  will  eat 
about  12  pounds  of  potatoes  daily.  Dried  potato  flakes 
are  used  somewhat  in  feeding  .stock,  especially  in  Ger- 
many and  probably  could  be  used  for  poultry  in  this  coun- 
try if  available  at  an  economical  price. 

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POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

MISCELLANEOUS  GREEN  AND  SUCCULENT  FEEDS 

Cabbages  are  greatly  liked  by  poultry  and  are  fed  exten- 
sively as  a  succulent  feed,  ranking  next  to  mangels  in 
popularity  as  a  food  for  this  purpose.  Cabbages  are  not 
as  economical  a  feed  to  produce  as  mangels  or  rutabagas, 
as  they  produce  only  from  4,000  to  4,500  pounds  of  dry 
matter  to  the  acre,  require  much  more  labor  in  their  pro- 
duction, and  are  more  difficult  to  store  than  mangels. 
They  are  usually  fed  whole  and  are  hung  up  in  the  poultry 
houses  where  the  fowls  or  chickens  can  eat  them  at  will. 
Where  both  cabbages  and  mangels  are  produced  the  cab- 
bages are  used  first  in  the  fall  and  winter  as  the  mangels 
will  keep  better  and  longer  than  cabbages.  Mangels  are 
better  for  small  chickens  to  pick  at  than  cabbages  as  they 
are  only  able  to  secure  very  small  bits  of  this  feed.  Where 
cabbages  are  fed  to  very  small  chickens  it  is  advisable  to 
chop  the  cabbages  up  finely  before  feeding. 

RAPE 

Rape  is  one  of  the  best  forage  crops,  producing  a  large 
amount  of  succulent  feed,  which  is  well  liked  by  poultry. 
From  5,000  to  6,000  pounds  of  dry  matter  may  be  secured 
from  an  acre  of  land  where  the  rape  is  cut  and  fed  as 
forage.  Rape  furnishes  excellent  grazing  for  poultry 
within  5  to  8  weeks  after  it  is  sown,  under  good  weather 
conditions,  and  will  continue  to  throw  out  new  shoots  if 
not  grazed  too  closely.  The  dwarf  Essex  variety  is  the  only 
one  well  adapted  to  raise  for  this  purpose.  It  may  be  sown 
continuously  from  early  spring  until  late  summer  either 

108 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

broadcast  or  in  drills.  A  small  amount  of  rape  seed  may 
be  sown  to  advantage,  with  oats  and  other  growing  grain 
crops,  during  the  late  spring  and  early  summer  where  the 
yard  is  to  be  pastured  with  poultry.  The  feeding  of  salt  is 
beneficial  where  poultry  is  run  on  forage  pasture  to  pre- 
vent too  laxative  results  from  the  green  crops. 

Rape  has  an  advantage  over  root  crops  and  cabbages 
in  that  poultry  will  harvest  this  crop  themselves  and  it 
can  be  grown  in  the  poultry  yard  where  its  cultivation 
will  freshen  and  renew  the  land  and  at  the  same  time  fur- 
nish good  succulent  green  feed.  It  is  only  adapted  for 
use  during  the  growing  season.  Rape  may  also  be  grown 
advantageously  as  a  forage  crop,  cutting  a  small  amount 
of  this  feed  daily,  chopping  it  into  short  lengths  and  mix- 
ing it  in  the  poultry  mash.  Where  sown  in  poultry  yards 
for  grazing  it  should  be  sown  broadcast  and  where  it  is 
to  be  cut  and  fed  as  forage  it  may  be  sown  either  in  drills 
or  broadcast.  Rape  is  one  of  the  very  best  green  crops 
to  raise  for  poultry  in  the  eastern  section  of  this  country. 

KALE 

Thousand  headed  kale,  a  cabbage-like  plant  which  does 
not  form  a  head,  is  grown  extensively  in  Oregon,  Wash- 
nington,  and  California  and  used  there  for  feeding  poul- 
try. Very  heavy  yields  can  be  secured  on  rich  soil  where 
plenty  of  moisture  is  available,  and  in  the  southern  part 
of  this  section  the  feed  can  be  grown  throughout  the 
year.  Kale  is  grown  as  a  soiling  crop,  a  small  amount 

109 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

being  cut  daily,  chopped  into  small  pieces  and  mixed  in 
with  the  poultry  mash. 

Pumpkins,  squashes,  and  melons  are  not  usually  avail- 
able for  poultry  feeding  but  are  occasionally  used.  They 
are  generally  fed  raw  and  neither  pumpkins  nor  squashes 
are  especially  relished  by  fowls.  Surplus  or  cull  fruit  of 
any  kind  is  a  great  relish  for  poultry  but  is  rarely  available 
for  that  purpose.  Such  fruit  contains  slightly  more  dry 
matter  than  roots,  the  sugar  being  their  chief  food  sup- 
ply. In  experiments  with  hogs  conducted  at  Utah  100 
pounds  of  apples  were  equal  to  from  9  to  15  pounds  of 
grains. 

Fowls  will  pick  over  and  eat  a  little  corn  silage  but  do 
not  eat  enough  of  it  to  make  this  feed  of  any  great  im- 
portance for  poultry.  Corn  silage  contains  too  much 
coarse  hard  fiber  to  make  it  well  adapted  for  a  poultry 
feed.  Immature  corn  stalks  are  chopped  up  and  fed 
extensively  to  ducks  and  geese  and  corn  silage  is  also  used 
a  little  for  these  two  kinds  of  waterfowl,  especially  for  the 
geese.  Ducks  and  geese  are  considered  to  be  better  able 
to  utilize  coarse  fiber  of  this  nature  than  are  fowls. 

SOILAGE  OF  CROPS 

Soilage  or  furnishing  freshly  cut  green  crops  to  stock 
in  confinement  is  a  method  used  extensively  in  feeding 
dairy  cows  and  other  kinds  of  livestock  as  well  as  for 
poultry.  The  advantages  of  the  soiling  method  are: 
i.  Larger  crops  may  be  secured  by  allowing  the  crops 
to  nearly  mature  before  harvesting  than  are  secured  by 

no 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

pasturing;  2.  The  waste  which  occurs  when  poultry 
trample  on  the  crops  is  avoided;  3.  Less  fencing  is  re- 
quired, which  is  a  big  item  of  expense  on  poultry  farms; 
4.  A  constant  even  supply  of  green  feed  can  be  secured 
which  it  is  very  difficult  to  obtain  by  the  pasture  soiling 
system. 

On  the  other  hand  the  soilage  system  involves  greater 
labor  in  handling  the  crop  and  more  expenditure  of  time 
or  money  in  providing  fertilizer.  The  additional  exercise 
secured  by  the  fowls  on  fresh  land  which  contains  more  or 
less  insects  and  worms  is  also  advantageous,  and  serves 
to  keep  the  yards  fresh  and  the  .soil  sweet  and  clean.  The 
poultry  droppings  or  manure  will  usually  supply  sufficient 
fertilizer  to  grow  plenty  of  green  feed  on  a  poultry  farm. 
Soiling  crops  in  their  early  stages  are  mostly  water  and  do 
not  contain  much  nourishment,  but  furnish  the  desired 
succulence  and  bulk.  Many  poultrymen  desire  .some  bulky 
green  feed  to  mix  in  with  the  mash,  which  makes  the  mash 
more  palatable,  whereby  the  fowls  will  consume  greater 
quantities  of  feed  while  this  green  feed  removes  any 
danger  of  ill  effects  from  overfeeding  or  forcing  the 
hens. 

A  combination  of  the  two  systems  will  usually  give  the 
best  results,  growing  sufficient  green  crops  on  the  yards 
attached  to  the  poultry  house  to  keep  the  land  fresh,  but 
having,  at  least  during  part  of  the  year,  generally  during 
the  hot  summer  months,  a  soilage  crop  to  .supplement 
the  yard  pastures,  and  also  providing  some  succulent  feed 
for  use  in  the  winter.  The  soiling  system  is  used  exten- 

iii 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

sively   in   California   in  the  highly  .specialized   poultry 
sections. 

SPROUTED  GRAINS 

Sprouted  grains,  especially  sprouted  oats,  are  used  ex- 
tensively as  a  green  feed  for  poultry  on  poultry  farms 
and  also  by  the  suburban  poultry  keepers.  Oats  are  the 
best  grain  to  use  for  sprouting.  They  are  greatly  relished 
by  fowls,  and  are  quite  beneficial  to  the  fowls'  digestive 
system.  The  disadvantage  of  sprouting  oats  is  the  con- 
siderable amount  of  labor  attached  to  this  work.  Green 
feed  can  usually  be  supplied  in  a  cheaper  form  by  the 
use  of  mangel  wurzel  beets,  cabbages,  alfalfa,  etc. 

Where  possibilities  for  raising  other  forms  of  green 
feed  are  poor,  sprouted  oats  offer  one  of  the  best  sources 
of  succulent  or  green  feed.  Sprouting  the  oats  does  not 
increase  their  food  content  any,  but  makes  them  more 
palatable  for  poultry.  Experiments  conducted  with  ani- 
mals show  that  a  given  weight  of  barley  is  of  greater  food 
value  than  the  malt  and  malt  sprouts  produced  from  a 
similar  amount  of  barley  used  in  the  manufacture  of  malt. 
The  amount  of  diastase  which  converts  the  starches  of 
grains  into  sugar  is  increased  greatly  in  the  sprouting 
of  grains.  The  value  of  sprouted  grains  lies  in  their 
palatability  and  their  beneficial  effect  on  the  digestive  sys- 
tem of  the  fowls. 

YEAST 

Yeast  has  been  used  somewhat  for  poultry  but  not 
sufficiently  to  determine  accurately  its  value.  The  object 

112 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEED  STUFFS 

of  the  yeast  is  to  either  change  the  feed  by  fermentation 
or  to  add  valuable  food  constitutents,  especially  vitamines, 
of  which  yeast  has  a  high  content.  In  some  work  con- 
ducted with  yeast  no  beneficial  effects  were  noticed  from 
the  use  of  3  per  cent  of  dry  yeast  in  the  dry  mash  nor 
where  a  similar  amount  of  yeast  was  used  in  fermenting 
poultry  mash  before  it  was  fed.  Bacteria  and  harmful 
organisms  are  apt  to  get  into  the  fermenting  mash  during 
the  time  it  is  being  held  for  fermentation  which  may  do 
more  harm  to  the  fowls  than  the  good  that  might  be  done 
by  the  yeast.  Similar  results  in  the, use  of  yeast  have 
been  secured  in  hog  feeding,  showing  that  it  was  not  an 
economical  feed  for  that  purpose,  under  present  condi- 
tions. 

POISONOUS  PLANTS 

Poisonous  plants  are  not  of  a  great  deal  of  importance 
in  the  feeding  of  poultry  as  fowls  will  rarely  eat  plants 
which  are  poisonous  unless  they  are  forced  to  by  extreme 
hunger.  Diseased  feed,  or  grain  diseases,  are  much  more 
dangerous  as  there  are  several  fungi  which  attack  grains 
that  may  injure  poultry  if  much  of  the  fungus  is  con- 
sumed. Ergot,  a  fungus  which  attacks  rye,  is  especially 
injurious.  The  condition  of  the  feed  is  also  important 
in  this  connection  as  spoiled  feed  will  produce  very  serious 
results.  Damp  grain  which  becomes  sour  and  moldy  is 
the  cause  of  a  great  deal  of  damage,  especially  in  corn 
and  corn  meal.  In  the  early  spring  and  summer  it  is  very 
necessary  to  watch  the  cracked  corn  very  carefully  to 
prevent  heating  of  the  mass  and  spoiling. 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

PREPARATION  OF  FEEDS 

The  object  of  preparing  feeds  is  to  make  them  more 
digestible,  to  improve  the  palatability,  or  to  permit  the 
mixing  of  well-liked  feeds  with  others  not  so  well  rel- 
ished. It  undoubtedly  pays  to  cut  up  forage  crops  as  the 
poultry  will  then  eat  them  much  more  quickly  and  with 
very  little  waste.  Cooking  feed,  instead  of  improving  it, 
lowers  its  digestibility.  It  has  been  found  that  it  does  not 
pay  to  steam  roughage  for  stock  or  to  cook  feed  for  hogs, 
although  the  latter  has  been  done  very  extensively  in  the 
past.  The  only  feeds  for  poultry  which  it  pays  to  cook 
are  garbage,  potatoes,  field  beans  and  soy  beans.  Where 
the  garbage  is  perfectly  fresh  and  there  is  no  question 
concerning  its  condition  it  does  not  pay  to  boil  or  cook 
this  feed  in  any  way,  the  object  of  cooking  being  to  kill 
any  disease  germs  and  all  bacteria  which  cause  decompo- 
sition. 

Potatoes  need  cooking  to  soften  them  and  make  them 
suitable  for  the  fowls  to  eat.  Field  beans  should  be 
cooked  to  make  them  soft,  as  fowls  will  not  eat  uncooked 
beans  freely.  Warming  or  steaming  th'e  mash  may  be 
advantageous  in  winter  as  it  tends  to  make  it  more  palat- 
able and  better  relished.  It  is  especially  necessary  that 
feed  for  animals  which  are  being  fattened  or  are  only  to 
be  kept  a  few  weeks  before  being  marketed,  should  be 
highly  palatable  and  in  some  cases  it  may  pay  to  cook 
such  feed  in  order  to  make  the  chickens  consume  more 
of  the  ration.  The  poultry  packing  companies  who  fat- 
ten chickens  commercially  do  not  cook  the  feed  at  all. 

114 


PART  III 
PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 


CHAPTER  IX 

METHODS  OF  FEEDING  LAYING  HENS 

Feeding  is  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  profit- 
able egg  production.  On  poor  rations  hens  will  live 
and  even  keep  in  fair  health  and  condition,  but  well-bal- 
anced, palatable  feeds  are  essential  to  get  good  egg  pro- 
duction and  produce  profitable  results.  The  additional 
cost  of  a  good  ration  compared  with  a  poor  ration  is  re- 
paid many  times  by  the  extra  eggs  obtained.  The  ration 
does  not  have  to  be  complex  or  contain  all  kinds  of  feeds 
to  produce  good  results,  and  as  a  rule  the  simplest  feed 
mixtures  composed  of  home-grown  grains  or  those  readily 
available,  supplemented  by  meat  scrap,  sweet  or  sour  milk, 
will  give  the  best  results  and  will  produce  eggs  at  the 
lowest  cost.  In  addition  to  selecting  the  proper  kinds  of 
feed,  good  methods  used  in  feeding  and  proper  manage- 
ment of  the  fowls  are  very  essential  factors  for  success. 

The  ration  should  consist  of  a  scratch  mixture  made 
up  of  the  cheapest  available  grains  which  are  well  liked 
by  poultry.  In  addition,  a  mash  should  be  fed  which  is 
composed  of  ground  grains,  mill  products  and  meat 
scraps.  The  scratch  mixture  should  usually  consist  of 
two  grains,  and  may  contain  more,  as  variety  is  beneficial, 
but  not  essential  if  the  additional  variety  is  made  up  of 
grains  which  are  relatively  high  in  price.  A  balanced  ra- 

117 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

tion  is  a  combination  of  feeds  which  will  furnish  just  the 
necessary  amount  of  nutrients  to  produce  the  highest  and 
most  economical  egg  yields.  The  proportion  of  scratch 
grains  to  mash  used,  materially  effects  the  balancing  of 
the  ration.  The  mash  feeds  are  relatively  high  in  protein, 
while  the  scratch  mixture  is  high  in  starches  and  sugars. 
The  best  results  are  secured  where  about  equal  parts  of 
mash  and  of  scratch  grains  are  fed  daily.  This  mash  may 
be  fed  either  as  a  dry  or  wet  mash.  If  fed  as  a  dry  mash, 
it  is  usually  kept  before  the  fowls  all  the  time  in  a  hopper. 
A  wet  mash  is  fed  in  a  trough  usually  once  a  day.  The 
moist  mash  may  be  fed  either  in  the  morning  or  at  noon, 
the  more  common  practice  being  to  feed  the  mash  in  the 
morning.  In  mixing  the  moist  mash  it  is  very  essential 
that  only  sufficient  water  be  added  to  make  the  mash 
crumbly  and  not  wet  and  sticky.  A  handful  of  the  mash 
after  it  is  mixed  with  the  water  should  make  a  crumbly 
mass  when  pressed  together,  and  should  not  be  wet 
enough  to  be  sticky  or  pasty. 

RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  MOIST  AND  DRY  MASHES 

The  dry  mash  system  is  better  adapted  for  the  average 
poultry  keeper,  and  especially  for  the  novice  in  poultry 
work,  as  there  is  less  danger  of  improper  feeding  by  this 
method.  The  dry  mash  system  is  also  adapted  to  poultry 
farms  where  much  of  the  work  is  done  by  unskilled  labor. 
The  moist  mash  will  give  as  good,  if  not  better,  egg  pro- 
duction in  the  hands  of  a  skilful  feeder  than  can  be  se- 
cured by  the  dry  mash.  It  requires  considerably  more 

118 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

judgment  and  care  in  its  use,  and  also  involves  more  la- 
bor than  the  dry  mash  system.  It  is  particularly  advan- 
tageous where  one  desires  to  use  the  mash  with  other 
materials,  such  as  green  feed  or  garbage,  as  they  can  be 
easily  mixed  in  a  moist  mash  and  a  palatable  well-relished 
product  secured. 

With  all  the  dry  mash  kept  in  an  open  hopper  all  of  the 
time  the  fowls  can  eat  a  little  feed  at  frequent  intervals 
and  are  always  sure  to  have  enough  feed  without  .stuffing 
or  gorging  themselves  at  any  one  time.  On  the  other 
hand  where  a  moist  mash  is  fed  just  the  right  amount  of 
mash  must  be  given  or  poor  results  will  follow.  If  too 
little  moist  mash  is  fed  some  of  the  hens  will  eat  more  than 
their  share  of  the  feed,  while  the  others  which  are  not  so 
well  able  to  take  care  of  themselves  as  the  stronger  fowls, 
will  get  hardly  any  feed.  If  more  moist  mash  is  fed  than 
the  hens  will  consume  within  an  hour  or  so  the  surplus 
will  become  stale  and  is  likely  to  ferment.  If  the  fowls 
eat  this  spoiled  feed  digestive  troubles  are  likely  to  fol- 
low. 

A  wet  mash  must  be  mixed  and  fed  each  day,  while  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  dry  mash  can  be  mixed  at  one  time 
to  last  from  i  to  4  weeks,  if  large  hoppers  are  used.  A 
combination  of  these  systems  is  sometimes  found  useful, 
especially  in  the  fall  to  get  pullets  to  commence  to  lay, 
and  also  for  hens  during  the  molting  period  as  the  hens 
are  inclined  not  to  eat  mash  freely  during  that  period.  In 
this  combination  a  dry  mash  is  fed  in  the  usual  manner 
with  a  light  feed  of  moist  mash  given  once  daily,  to  get 

119 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

the  hens  to  consume  more  mash  feed.    A  moist  mash  is 
much  more  relished  by  fowls  than  is  a  dry  mash. 

With  a  system  of  feeding  whereby  the  fowls  are 
handled  so  as  to  eat  half  mash  and  half  scratch  feed,  there 
is  a  tendency  to  underfeed  the  fowls  in  the  fall  and  early 
winter,  before  the  hens  get  to  eating  the  dry  mash  freely. 
By  feeding  this  additional  moist  mash  and  proportionately 
more  scratch  feed  the  fowls  will  consume  a  greater 
amount  of  feed  and  produce  more  eggs  during  that  season 
of  the  year.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  winter  and  in  the 
spring  the  fowls  eat  dry  mash  much  more  freely,  thereby 
eliminating  the  necessity  for  the  extra  moist  mash.  This 
may  also  be  handled  by  adding  ten  per  cent  of  cracked 
corn  to  the  dry  mash  if  the  fowls  do  not  eat  the  mash 
freely  in  the  fall  and  early  winter. 

SCRATCH  FEEDS 

Corn,  wheat,  oats,  and  barley  are  the  principal  grains 
fed  to  poultry.  In  making  up  the  scratch  feed  or  what 
is  commonly  called  the  "scratch  mixture"  Kaffir  corn  and 
buckwheat  are  also  used  but  are  not  so  generally  avail- 
able as  the  other  grains  and  are  usually  much  more  ex- 
pensive considering  their  relative  food  content.  One 
grain  alone  does  not  usually  give  the  best  results  but  two  or 
three  well-liked  grains  will  give  about  as  high  egg  yields 
as  will  a  much  greater  variety  of  grains,  while  a  simple 
mixture  is  much  less  expensive  than  a  mixture  containing 
6  or  8  different  grains. 

Use  those  grains  most  readily  available  or  which  are 

120 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

produced  in  your  section,  provided  they  are  grains  which 
poultry  relish.  Corn  and  wheat  are  the  two  best  grains 
and  are  about  equal  in  value  as  poultry  feeds,  although 
wheat  can  be  fed  alone  better  than  corn  as  the  latter  grain 
is  inclined  to  be  fattening.  Wheat  is  not  being  fed  as 
extensively  as  corn  on  account  of  its  relatively  high  price, 
but  most  poultrymen  like  some  of  it  in  their  ration,  es- 
pecially for  the  chick  feeds. 

Only  the  poorer  grades  of  wheat,  not  fit  for  making 
flour,  are  usually  available  for  feeding  poultry.  Wheat  is 
generally  available  and  is  used  in  all  sections  of  the  United 
States.  Oats  and  barley  on  account  of  their  hulls  and 
higher  fiber  content  are  not  as  good  as  corn  and  wheat 
and  are  not  nearly  as  well  relished  by  poultry.  Many 
oats  are  very  light  in  weight  and  the  heavier  grades  make 
by  far  the  best  poultry  feeds.  It  pays  to  use  clipped  oats 
for  fowls  if  only  light-weight  oats  are  available.  Oats 
are  raised  and. are  available  all  over  the  country.  Whole 
oats  are  not  adapted  to  feed  young  chickens  but  make  ex- 
cellent feed  when  prepared  as  rolled  oats,  pinhead  oat 
meal,  or  hulled  oats. 

COMMERCIAL  MIXED  FEEDS 

A  large  number  of  commercial  mixtures,  both  of 
scratch  grains  and  of  ground  grains  or  mashes  are  pre- 
pared for  poultry  feeds  and  sold  extensively  all  over  the 
United  States.  The  large  feed  companies  by  handling 
an  enormous  amount  of  grains  and  by  using  machinery  to 
save  labor  in  mixing  and  handling  are  able  to  prepare 

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POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

these  mixed  feeds  very  economically  and  are  usually  able 
to  sell  them  at  a  price  which  is  economical  if  the  labor 
of  home  mixing  is  taken  into  consideration.  By  buying 
these  prepared  mixed  feeds  the  poultryman  is  always  able 
to  get  a  variety  of  grains  which  are  in  good  mechanical 
condition. 

Where  the  individual  feeds  are  bought  in  small  quanti- 
ties from  small  local  markets  the  poultry  keeper  may  have 
trouble  in  getting  the  grains  desired  which  forces  him  to 
keep  changing  his  ration.  Some  of  the  companies  which 
produce  breakfast  foods  also  make  poultry  feeds  on  a 
large  scale,  using  by-products  from  the  manufacture  of 
these  breakfast  cereals  for  their  poultry  feeds.  A  very 
high  grade  poultry  feed  is  often  produced  as  a  by-product 
by  this  process  as  such  feed  is  usually  of  the  very  best 
quality,  although  not  of  the  right  condition  or  size  for 
human  food. 

The  poultry  keeper  who  has  only  a  few  fowls  is  not 
usually  in  position  to  buy  in  lots  of  100  pounds  the  sepa- 
rate feeds  necessary  to  make  a  varied  and  well-balanced 
ration,  while  if  such  feeds  are  bought  in  smaller  quanti- 
ties than  this  the  rate  per  pound  is  usually  much  higher 
than  for  the  larger  quantities.  If  he  buys  only  one  scratch 
grain  and  one  ground  grain  the  results  secured  are  not 
satisfactory,  as  a  palatable  and  well-balanced  ration  can- 
not be  made  from  such  a  combination.  Consequently  this 
class  of  poultry-keepers  can  usually  purchase  commercial 
mixed  feeds  to  better  advantage  than  they  can  buy  the 
separate  grains  and  mix  their  own  rations.  The  price  of 

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PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

a  mixture  of  this  kind  should  be  compared  with  the  price 
of  the  individual  grains  to  see  which  i.s  the  best  product 
to  purchase.  One  should  note  especially  the  protein  and 
the  fiber  content  of  the  prepared  feed. 

A  system  of  preparing  feeds  which  is  being  used  in 
some  sections,  especially  in  the  State  of  California,  with 
excellent  results  is  to  have  the  mills  mix  a  feed  according 
to  the  formula  furnished  by  individual  poultrymen  or  by 
a  poultry  association.  By  this  method  the  poultryman 
gets  just  the  feed  he  desires  and  is  pretty  apt  to  get  good 
quality  grains  at  a  price  which  compares  fairly  favorably 
with  what  he  would  have  to  pay  for  the  individual  grains 
and  in  addition  he  would  save  the  labor  of  mixing  the 
feeds  at  home.  Some  of  the  big  feed  dealers  in  California 
prepare  a  very  large  number  of  rations  by  this  method. 
Where  the  grains  are  mixed  at  home,  convenient  working 
facilities  should  be  made  to  mix  these  feeds  to  the  best 
advantage.  One  easy  way  to  prepare  the  scratch  grains 
and  also  the  dry  mash  is  to  work  them  over  with  a  large 
scoop  shovel  on  a  smooth  floor  of  the  feed  room.  A  mix- 
ing machine  similar  to  those  used  in  mixing  bakers'  dough 
is  a  good  investment  on  all  large  duck  and  poultry  farms 
where  a  moist  mash  is  fed  and  can  also  be  used  in  mixing 
large  quantities  of  dry  mash,  although  it  is  not  essential 
for  dry  mash. 

GREEN  FEEDS 

Forage  Crops.  In  addition  to  the  scratch  feed  and  the 
mash,  green  feed,  oyster  shell  and  grit  should  be  supplied. 

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POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

Bone  in  some  form  is  also  of  value  where  the  birds  are 
closely  confined.  The  importance  of  green  feed  both  as  a 
source  of  bulky  feed  and  a  conditioner  for  poultry  can- 
not be  overemphasized.  Green  feed  contains  a  consider- 
able amount  of  the  substances  now  recognized  as  abso- 
lutely essential  to  growth  and  health.  The  larger  and 
greater  the  variety  of  green  feed  that  can  be  produced 
and  fed  at  a  reasonable  cost  the  greater  will  be  the  returns 
from  the  fowls  in  addition  to  the  beneficial  effect  on  their 
health. 

Good  kinds  of  green  feeds  are  green  grass,  kale,  rape, 
growing  grains,  sprouted  oats,  mangel  beets,  cabbages, 
chopped  alfalfa  and  clover  hay,  and  alfalfa  meal.  Kale, 
rape  and  all  green  crops  should  be  put  through  a  feed 
cutter  and  chopped  into  pieces  one-half  to  three- fourths  of 
an  inch  long.  The  fowls  will  eat  a  much  greater  amount 
of  green  feed  where  it  is  prepared  in  this  manner  and 
either  mixed  with  a  moist  mash  or  fed  as  a  separate  feed 
daily  by  itself  in  troughs  than  if  hens  are  allowed  to  range 
in  a  field  where  these  crops  are  growing.  However,  the 
soil  should  be  kept  fresh  and  sweet  by  ploughing  and 
.seeding  the  yards  with  a  quick  growing  green  crop  and 
the  fowls  allowed  to  range  on  these  growing  crops  in  th$ 
yards  when  the  grain  is  2  to  3  inches  high.  This  method 
of  handling  the  yards  keeps  the  soil  fresh  and  sweet  and 
in  addition  provides  considerable  green  feed. 

Where  extra  green  feed  is  grown  it  can  be  fed  to  the 
fowls  while  fresh  to  better  advantage  than  to  allow  the 
hens  to  harvest  the  crops  themselves  as  by  the  latter 

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PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

method  a  considerable  part  of  the  green  feed  is  wasted. 
Free  range  or  large  yards  kept  in  grass  furnishes  ideal 
green  feed  and  should  be  handled  so  that  the  grass  is  not 
killed  out  but  is  kept  short,  making  the  blades  tender  and 
palatable.  Alfalfa  and  clover  are  especially  desirable 
for  such  yards,  as  the  fowls  will  consume  large  quantities 
of  these  grasses.  Such  grass  ranges  or  yards  furnish  suf- 
ficient green  feed  as  long  as  the  grass  is  green  and  tender 
but  should  be  supplemented  with  other  green  feeds  during 
the  winter  months  and  also  during  the  summer  months  in 
sections  in  the  South  where  the  grass  dies  out  or  becomes 
tough  and  wiry. 

The  crops  to  grow  in  the  poultry  yard  or  to  be  used  as 
soiling  crops  for  fowls  are  oats,  wheat,  kale,  rape,  peas, 
rye,  buckwheat,  and  vetch.  Oats  are  the  staple  crop 
adapted  to  most  all  conditions  and  which  can  be  grown 
any  time  during  the  normal  growing  season.  This  is  the 
grain  most  commonly  used  and  generally  a  small  amount, 
about  4  pounds  to  the  acre,  of  rape  seed  is  added  to  4 
bushels  of  oats  or  wheat.  Dwarf  Essex  Rape  is  the  best 
variety  to  use,  and  if  sown  alone  use  15  pounds  of  seed 
to  the  acre.  Several  sowings  of  oats  can  be  made  in  a 
poultry  yard  during  the  season,  and  the  hens  turned  into 
the  yards  when  the  oats  are  3  to  4  inches  high.  Wheat 
may  be  used  in  place  of  oats,  or  a  mixture  of  oats  and 
wheat  makes  a  good  combination  with  the  rape  seed.  Can- 
ada peas  and  oats  are  a  good  mixture  to  grow  early  in  the 
season.  Buckwheat  and  cow  peas  are  good  mid-summer 
grains  to  use  for  this  purpose,  while  rye,  vetch  and  winter 

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POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

wheat  are  good  crops  to  sow  in  the  fall  as  they  will  live 
through  winter  in  many  sections.  Kale  is  the  crop  used 
most  extensively  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  All  of  these  feeds 
may  be  utilized  either  by  turning  the  hens  into  the  grow- 
ing grain  or  by  cutting  the  grains  as  soiling  crops  and 
chopping  them  up  for  the  fowls. 

Sprouted  Oats.  Sprouted  oats  make  a  good  green  feed 
where  other  kinds  of  green  feed  are  not  readily  secured  as 
oats  can  be  obtained  and  sprouted  at  any  season  of  the 
year.  Fowls  greatly  relish  oats  .so  treated  and  will  readily 
eat  about  one  square  inch  of  sprouted  oats'  surface  daily. 
Such  oats  may  be  fed  at  any  time  after  the  sprouts  are 
well  started,  the  usual  practice  being  to  feed  them  when 
the  sprouts  are  from  J^  to  ij4  inches  long.  It  takes  5 
to  7  days  to  sprout  oats  to  this  length,  the  number  of 
days  depending  largely  on  the  temperature  of  the  place 
where  the  oats  are  sprouted.  Oats  for  sprouting  should 
be  soaked  over  night  in  water,  and  then  spread  out  from 
one  to  two  inches  thick  on  trays  having  perforated  or  wire 
bottoms  and  put  into  the  oat  sprouter.  Water  the  oats 
thoroughly  and  turn  the  trays  around  once  daily  to  pro- 
mote even  sprouting.  The  oats  should  be  stirred  daily 
until  well  sprouted  to  keep  the  oats  from  molding  and  to 
help  make  more  even  sprouts. 

Artificial  heat  should  be  supplied  in  cool  weather  either 
by  the  use  of  the  kersosene  lamp  furnishing  heat  direct  to 
the  sprouter  or  by  keeping  an  open  sprouter  in  a  room 
where  the  temperature  ranges  from  50  to  70  degrees.  In 
an  incubator  cellar  or  brooder  house  where  the  room 

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PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

temperature  is  moderate,  oats  are  often  sprouted  by 
spreading  them  in  a  layer  two  inches  thick  directly  on  the 
cement  floors,  where  very  satisfactory  results  are  secured. 
Oats  so  arranged  can  be  watered  and  stirred  very  economi- 
cally. It  is  very  important  to  select  a  good  grade  of  heavy 
oats  for  sprouting  and  it  may  be  advisable  to  get  seed 
oats  for  this  purpose  if  the  ordinary  feed  oats  are  of  poor 
quality.  The  oats  sprouter  must  be  well-ventilated  or  the 
oats  will  be  inclined  to  mould.  Keep  the  sprouter  clean 
and  spray  it  occasionally  with  a  disinfectant  to  prevent 
the  growth  of  mould  spores. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary,  especially  where  one  is  forced 
to  use  a  poor  quality  of  oats,  to  treat  the  oats  with 
formalin  before  they  are  sprouted,  using  one  pint  of 
formalin  to  30  gallons  of  water  which  is  sprinkled  over 
and  thoroughly  mixed  with  30  bushels  of  oats.  The  oats 
are  covered  with  a  blanket  for  4  hours  and  then  stirred 
and  spread  in  the  open  until  they  are  thoroughly  dried, 
when  the  oats  are  sacked  in  a  bag  which  has  been 
previously  soaked  in  formalin  and  then  dried.  Oats 
treated  and  dried  in  this  way  may  be  kept  indefinitely  to 
use  for  sprouting.  While  other  grains  may  be  used  for 
sprouting,  such  as  barley,  rye  and  wheat,  oats  is  the  grain 
most  commonly  used  and  is  the  one  which  gives  the  best 
results. 

Cabbage  and  Mangel  Beets.  Both  cabbages  and  man- 
gel beets  are  splendid  green  feeds  for  poultry  and  can  be 
produced  economically,  as  both  supply  a  very  large  ton- 
nage per  acre  in  sections  where  the  soil  and  climatic  con- 

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POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

ditions  are  well  adapted  for  raising  such  crops.  Root 
crops  need  a  cool  summer  .season  to  give  the  best  results. 
These  feeds  are  of  equal  value  for  poultry  but  mangels 
can  usually  be  raised  and  handled  more  economically 
than  cabbages.  Information  regarding  the  raising  and 
storing  of  root  crops  and  the  comparative  yield  of  these 
crops  is  discussed  in  chapter  VIII. 

Cabbages  do  not  keep  so  well  as  mangel  beets  in  ordi- 
nary cellars  so  that  the  former  should  be  used  up  first  and 
the  beets  kept  for  feeding  later  in  the  winter  if  both  crops 
are  raised.  Beets  and  other  crops  of  this  nature  are  only 
raised  extensively  in  the  northern  section  of  this  country. 
Cabbages  may  be  hung  up  on  a  wire  or  rope  in  the  poultry 
house  while  beets  are  usually  split  and  stuck  on  a  nail  on 
the  side  wall  of  the  pen  about  a  foot  above  the  floor  or 
they  may  be  hung  up  as  are  cabbages.  Vegetables  which 
have  been  frozen  can  be  thawed  out  and  fed  to  fowls  but 
will  not  keep  long  after  they  are  thawed. 

CLOVER  AND  ALFALFA 

Freshly  cut  green  clover  and  alfalfa  are  excellent  green 
feeds  and  may  be  fed  mixed  in  with  the  mash  or  fed 
separately  in  open  hoppers.  While  the  dried  feeds  such  as 
alfalfa  meal  and  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  are  not  nearly  so 
well  relished  by  fowls  as  are  fresh  green  feeds  the  former 
offer  a  fair  substitute  using  from  5  to  8  pounds  in  100 
pounds  of  the  dry  mash.  Clover  and  alfalfa  hay  may  be 
cut  into  one-fourth  to  one-half  inch  lengths  and  mixed 

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PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

with  the  dry  mash  or  they  may  be  steamed  and  the  liquid 
obtained  by  this  steaming  used  in  mixing  the  hay  into  the 
moist  mash.  Alfalfa  ground  into  meal  is  sold  extensively 
for  feeding  poultry  and  is  usually  mixed  with  either  a  dry 
or  a  moist  mash  without  steaming  or  soaking  the  alfalfa. 
Many  of  the  commercial  mashes  both  for  growing  stock 
and  for  laying  hens  contain  alfalfa  meal.  The  best  grades 
of  alfalfa  meal  are  made  largely  from  the  leaves  and  finer 
parts  of  the  stems  of  alfalfa  hay  while  the  poorer  grades 
contain  an  excessive  proportion  of  hard  woody  stem 
which  is  ground  up  so  finely  that  it  is  difficult  to  detect. 
Select  such  meals  by  their  appearance  and  by  their 
analysis,  as  the  better  grades  have  a  larger  proportion 
of  fine  meal  without  much  coarse  fiber  and  also  have  a 
low  fiber  content  containing  not  more  than  30  per  cent 
fiber. 

The  second  or  last  crop  of  clover  hay  sometimes  called 
rowen  is  usually  especially  well  adapted  for  feeding 
poultry  as  it  contains  a  large  per  cent  of  leaves  and  fine 
stems  and  only  a  small  amount  of  coarse  woody  fiber. 
Only  good  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  which  has  been  properly 
cured  and  which  is  free  from  mould  or  must  should  be 
used  for  poultry. 

OYSTER  SHELLS 

Oyster  shells  should  be  kept  in  an  open  hopper  be- 
fore both  hens  and  growing  stock  all  of  the  time.  Use 
a  large  or  coarse  size  of  oyster  shell  for  hens  and  the 
finer  size  of  this  product  for  young  chicks  and  growing 

129 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

stock.  Oyster  shells  provide  most  of  the  lime  used  in 
making  egg  shells  while  growing  chicks  are  also  able 
to  assimilate  and  use  some  of  this  lime  during  their 
growing  period. 

Lime  can  be  supplied  more  readily  by  using  oyster 
shells  than  by  attempting  to  use  a  soft  limestone  to 
furnish  both  lime  and  to  be  used  as  a  grinding  surface. 
Clam  and  mussel  shells  have  about  the  same  analysis  as 
oyster  shells  and  serve  the  same  purpose  in  feeding 
poultry.  Select  whichever  of  these  two  feeds  are  cheapest, 
the  oyster  shells  usually  being  cheaper  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi and  the  clam  shells  being  cheaper  west  of  that 
point. 

Laying  hens  will  eat  from  2  to  3  pounds  of  oyster 
shells  in  a  year  which  with  the  low  price  of  the  product 
makes  this  feed  a  small  but  very  important  item  in  the 
yearly  feeding  of  the  hens.  The  lack  of  oyster  shells 
in  a  ration  for  laying  hens  will  show  up  rapidly  in  the 
production  of  soft  shelled  eggs  which  can  be  changed 
quickly  by  supplying  the  necessary  oyster  shells  or  lime 
material.  Where  one  desires  to  supply  this  material  very 
rapidly  the  lime  may  be  dissolved  in  water.  Ordinary 
unslaked  .stone  lime  may  be  dissolved  in  water  and  the 
clear  liquid  skimmed  off  and  supplied  to  the  fowls.  The 
amount  of  oyster  shells  needed  and  used  depends  also  on 
the  nature  of  the  soil,  less  oyster  shells  being  required 
in  a  limestone  soil  if  the  fowls  have  good  range  than 
is  necessary  in  sections  where  there  is  no  limestone  in 
the  soil. 

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PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

GRIT 

Grit  should  be  kept  before  poultry  all  of  the  time 
and  is  usually  one  of  the  first  feeds  given  to  young 
chickens  of  all  kinds.  Chickens  need  a  fine  chick  size 
grit  while  a  coarser  grit  about  the  size  of  a  large  grain  of 
corn  is  better  adapted  for  fowls.  The  grit  for  hens  should 
be  very  hard  in  texture  as  these  hard  stones  assist  in 
grinding  the  food  in  the  fowl's  gizzard. 

One  of  the  essentials  of  grit  is  hardness,  and  soft  stones 
such  as  some  of  the  softer  limestones  do  not  make  good 
grit.  Fine  sharp  clean  sand  mixed  in  with  the  feed  is 
usually  provided  as  grit  for  ducklings  and  goslings  and 
may  also  be  supplied  to  young  chicks  using  about  3  per 
cent  of  this  grit  in  the  feed.  Where  hard  grit  is  not 
available  the  temporary  use  of  broken  crockery  will  pro- 
duce good  results  in  sections  where  the  ordinary  .stone  is 
of  a  soft  limestone  nature.  Reports  from  turkey  sections 
in  the  South  have  indicated  that  supplying  a  hard  grit  to 
turkey  poults  resulted  in  much  better  results  from  the 
poults  in  sections  where  the  natural  stone  was  a  soft  lime- 
stone, even  where  the  turkeys  had  excellent  range. 

Where  chickens  are  fattened  commercially  grit  is  not 
usually  supplied  during  the  short  fattening  period  al- 
though some  feeders  use  a  limited  amount  of  grit. 
Chickens  on  free  range  on  a  gravelly  soil  containing 
large  quantities  of  fine  hard  pebbles  or  grit  do  not  need 
additional  grit  nearly  so  much  as  do  chickens  kept  con- 
fined to  small  yards  or  where  there  are  no  small  hard 
stones  in  the  soil. 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

The  amount  of  grit  used  is  small  and  grit  is  usually 
low  priced  so  that  the  cost  is  a  factor  of  small  importance. 
In  experiments  at  the  Government  Poultry  Farm  lay- 
ing hens  consumed  about  1.5  pounds  of  grit  in  a  year. 
Grit  is  quite  essential  for  pigeons  and  commercial  prod- 
ucts commonly  called  health  mixtures  are  produced  and 
sold  extensively  for  that  purpose.  These  products  con- 
tain varying  proportions  of  grit,  charcoal,  oyster  shells, 
salt  and  some  stimulating  feeds. 

A  mixture  of  this  kind  may  be  made  of  40  pounds  of 
granite  grit,  40  pounds  of  oyster  shells,  10  pounds  of 
charcoal,  5  pounds  of  fine  salt  and  3  pounds  of  Venetian 
Red.  The  salt  is  usually  moistened  with  water  and  then 
mixed  with  the  rest  of  the  product  so  that  it  is  thoroughly 
distributed  throughout  the  mixture  and  much  of  the  salt 
adheres  to  the  grit  and  oyster  shell  and  is  not  left  in  a 
loose  dry  form  by  itself.  This  prevents  the  pigeons  from 
eating  too  much  salt  at  one  time,  which  they  may  do  if 
they  can  get  at  a  big  supply  of  fine  loose  salt.  Com- 
mercial chick  feeds  sometimes  contain  5  to  10  per  cent  grit 
but  under  the  present  feed  inspection  laws  the  use  of 
grit  in  such  feeds  is  usually  prohibited  or  if  grit  is  used 
it  must  be  plainly  marked  on  the  bag, 

CHARCOAL 

Charcoal  is  quite  generally  .supplied  to  poultry  of  all 
ages  and  may  be  kept  before  them  in  hoppers  or  mixed 
in  with  the  mash.  Where  it  is  mixed  in  with  the  mash 
from  one-half  to  i  per  cent  of  charcoal  is  usually  used. 

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PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

Charcoal  is  also  used  by  some  poultry  fatteners  although 
others  do  not  believe  it  is  essential  or  worth  while.  It 
probably  assists  in  correcting  digestive  troubles  and  keep- 
ing the  birds  in  good  condition  by  its  ability  to  absorb 
gases.  There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  its  value 
for  any  kind  of  poultry  and  many  poultrymen  do  not  use 
it  at  all,  but  as  the  amount  of  charcoal  consumed  by  fowls 
or  chickens  is  very  small  it  probably  is  at  least  worth  the 
small  cost  involved.  Some  poultrymen  make  their  own 
charcoal  by  occasionally  burning  a  few  sticks  of  hard- 
wood for  this  purpose.  Most  commercial  mash  mixtures 
contain  a  small  per  cent  of  charcoal. 

WATER 

Fresh  clean  water  should  always  be  kept  before  poultry 
of  all  ages.  An  egg  with  the  shell  contains  over  73  per 
cent  water,  making  it  very  necessary  that  a  large  supply 
of  water  be  furnished  all  kinds  of  poultry.  The  drink- 
ing vessels  must  be  kept  clean  and  should  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  washed  at  least  once  a  week,  and  should  be 
scalded  once  a  month. 

It  is  essential  to  supply  fresh  water  2  or  3  times  daily 
in  houses  where  the  water  freezes  during  the  winter  and 
this  should  also  be  done  during  hot  summer  weather 
when  the  water  soon  becomes  very  warm  and  stale  and 
where  the  fowls  are  apt  to  drink  all  the  water  rather 
quickly.  Fowls  will  drink  considerably  more  water  if 
the  water  is  kept  fresh  than  where  it  is  only  changed  once 
a  day  and  becomes  warm  and  stale.  Throughout  the 

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POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

year,  except  for  conditions  noted  above,  water  should  be 
supplied  fresh  once  daily  and  receptacles  large  enough 
to  hold  a  day's  supply  of  water  should  be  provided. 

The  drinking  fountains  or  pans  .should  be  emptied  at 
night  during  cold  weather  to  prevent  the  water  from 
freezing  but  it  is  very  essential  that  water  be  supplied 
early  in  the  morning  just  as  soon  as  the  fowls  come  off 
the  roost  if  the  best  results  are  to  be  secured  from  poultry. 

Automatic  watering  devices  are  used  on  many  large 
poultry  farms  and  keep  a  constant  supply  of  fresh  water 
before  the  fowls  all  of  the  time.  Automatic  devices  for 
watering  and  arrangement  of  equipment  of  this  kind  is 
discussed  more  in  detail  in  chapter  XIV. 

Such  appliances  are  especially  valuable  in  long  houses 
in  sections  where  the  water  does  not  freeze  so  that  they 
can  be  used  throughout  the  year,  without  making  it  neces- 
sary to  provide  against  cold  weather.  All  waterfowl  re- 
quire large  amounts  of  drinking  water,  making  some  con- 
venient watering  system  almost  essential  on  duck  farms. 

Where  electric  lights  are  used  in  stimulating  egg  pro- 
duction during  the  winter  months  it  is  very  essential 
that  water  be  available  to  the  fowls  early  in  the  morning 
as  soon  as  the  lights  are  turned  on.  In  sections  where 
the  water  freezes  in  the  house  some  arrangement  must 
be  made  whereby  water  can  be  kept  from  freezing  under 
those  conditions  or  else  fresh  water  supplied  in  the  morn- 
ing when  the  lights  are  turned  on.  Where  growing 
chickens  are  kept  on  a  range  which  is  often  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  other  buildings  and  where  the  birds 

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PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

are  fed  entirely  by  the  hopper  method  both  for  their 
grain  and  mash,  barrels  of  drinking  water  may  be  used 
and  fresh  water  supplied  only  once  or  twice  a  week.  A 
faucet  in  the  barrel  may  be  regulated  so  that  the  water 
drops  slowly  into  a  pan,  making  the  supply  last  for 
several  days  and  keeping  water  before  the  chickens  con- 
stantly. A  small  amount  of  disinfectant  such  as  pottas- 
sium  permanganate  or  iron  sulphate  should  be  put  in  the 
barrel  of  water  to  keep  it  sanitary  and  prevent  the  de- 
velopment of  mosquitoes  and  other  insects. 

QUANTITY  OF  GRAIN  TO  FEED 

Poultry  keepers  must  use  their  own  judgment  in  de- 
ciding how  much  grain  to  give  hens  as  the  amount  of 
feed  which  they  will  eat  varies  with  the  condition  and 
size  of  the  fowls  as  well  as  with  the  seasons  of  the  year 
and  the  method  of  feeding  used.  Hens  will  eat  more  grain 
when  they  are  in  good  condition  and  laying  heavily  than 
during  the  periods  of  low  egg  production  or  when  they 
are  not  in  the  best  of  physical  condition.  More  feed  will 
be  consumed  when  the  fowls  are  fed  a  small  amount  of 
grain  3  or  4  times  daily  than  where  they  are  fed  only 
once  or  twice  daily  as  is  the  more  common  practice. 

While  higher  egg  production  will  be  secured  by  the 
more  frequent  feeding  it  is  questionable  whether  such  a 
method  is  more  profitable  under  average  conditions  than 
the  simpler  method  of  feeding  grain  twice  daily.  The 
best  general  rule  to  follow  is  to  give  the  fowls  all  of  the 
grain  that  they  will  clean  up  within  10  or  15  minutes  after 

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POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

they  are  fed  for  all  of  the  feeds  except  the  last  feed  given 
in  the  evening.  For  the  evening  meal  a  full  feed  should 
always  be  supplied  so  that  the  fowls  will  go  to  the  roosts 
with  full  crops  and  it  is  advisable  to  feed  enough  grain 
at  night  so  that  there  will  be  a  little  grain  left  in  the  litter 
for  the  fowls  to  eat  and  scratch  for  when  they  get  up  in 
the  morning.  It  is  especially  desirable  and  essential  that 
fowls  have  a  full  crop  when  they  go  to  roost  in  cold 
weather  on  account  of  the  length  of  the  winter  nights. 
A  fair  general  estimate  is  to  feed  about  one  quart  of 
scratch  grains  and  an  equal  weight  of  mash,  that  is,  about 
il/2  quarts  of  mash,  daily  to  13  hens  of  the  general  pur- 
pose breeds  such  as  the  Plymouth  Rocks,  Rhode  Island 
Reds  or  Wyandottes  and  to  16  hens  of  the  smaller  or 
egg  breeds.  This  would  be  about  jl/2  pounds  each  of 
scratch  grains  and  of  mash  daily  to  100  Leghorns  and 
about  9l/2  pounds  of  each  to  100  general  purpose  fowls. 
This  is  advised  where  a  simple  method  of  feeding  is  used 
and  the  birds  are  not  forced  highly  for  egg  production. 
General  purpose  fowls  fed  in  this  manner  and  kept  on  a 
good  range  will  eat  about  75  pounds  of  feed  in  a  year 
including  both  scratch  grains  and  mash  and  Leghorns 
will  eat  about  55  pounds  in  addition  to  the  green  food 
consumed  by  both  of  these  breeds.  It  is  advisable  to  feed 
about  half  mash  and  half  scratch  grains  during  the  year, 
the  proportion  of  these  varying  somewhat  at  different 
seasons.  In  the  egg  laying  competitions  where  the  hens 
are  forced  more  heavily  for  production  and  grain  is  fed 
more  frequently,  a  larger  amount  of  grain  is  consumed. 

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PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

PROPORTION  OF  GRAIN  AND  MASH 

The  best  results  in  feeding  a  dry  mash  are  obtained 
where  the  hens  are  fed  so  that  they  consume  about  equal 
parts  of  mash  and  of  scratch  grains  in  the  course  of  the 
year.  The  mash  is  usually  kept  in  an  open  hopper  before 
the  fowls  all  of  the  time  and  the  amount  of  scratch  feed 
given  is  regulated  roughly  according  to  the  amount  of 
mash  which  the  fowls  are  eating.  Very  radical  changes 
should  not  be  made  in  the  feeding  and  all  changes  in  the 
kinds  of  feed  or  the  proportion  of  scratch  grains  to  mash 
should  be  made  gradually. 

Pullets  should  be  in  good  flesh  when  they  go  into  laying 
quarters  in  the  fall  and  it  is  usually  best  to  feed  these 
pullets  rather  freely  on  scratch  grains  at  that  time  espe- 
cially if  there  is  any  change  in  the  ration  from  their  grow- 
ing feeds.  If  when  the  pullets  are  moved  from  the  range 
and  put  in  their  winter  quarters  they  do  not  eat  the  mash 
freely  and  the  amount  of  scratch  grains  is  kept  rather 
limited,  the  birds  are  apt  not  to  eat  sufficient  feed  to 
start  egg  production  freely;  therefore  usually  making  it 
advisable  to  feed  two  parts  of  scratch  feed  to  one 
of  mash  at  that  time.  Then  as  the  pullets  eat  the  mash 
more  freely  the  proportion  of  mash  consumed  will  grad- 
ually come  up  to  the  amount  of  scratch  grains  fed  by 
January.  About  July  i  start  reducing  the  scratch  feeds 
until  the  fowls  eat  il/2  parts  mash  to  one  part  scratcn 
feed. 

If  the  fowls  do  not  start  to  eat  the  mash  fairly  well 
using  this  method  and  egg  production  starts  very  slowly, 

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POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

it  may  be  hastened  by  giving  a  light  feed  of  moist  mash 
daily  in  addition  to  the  dry  mash  kept  in  the  open  hopper. 
Feeding  freely  of  scratch  grains  to  the  pullets  during 
the  fall  helps  to  bring  egg  production  up  gradually  rather 
than  securing  a  very  rapid  increase  of  egg  production 
in  the  early  fall  when  the  pullets  are  not  fully  enough 
developed  or  in  good  enough  flesh  to  keep  up  this  pro- 
duction throughout  the  winter,  thereby  often  resulting 
in  a  material  slump  in  production  in  the  middle  of  the 
winter.  Always  feed  very  lightly  of  scratch  feeds  in 
the  morning. 

During  the  spring  months  when  egg  production  is 
highest  the  fowls  will  usually  eat  the  dry  mash  very 
freely  and  at  that  time  they  should  consume  equal  parts 
mash  and  scratch  grains.  About  July  or  when  the  egg 
production  begins  to  drop  off  and  the  moulting  period 
approaches,  the  fowls  are  inclined  to  eat  very  much  less 
mash  and  it  is  often  very  helpful  at  this  season  of  the 
year  to  give  a  light  feed  of  moist  mash  in  addition  to  the 
dry  mash.  Hens  which  are  inclined  to  get  over-fat  like 
the  Brahmas,  Orpingtons  and  large-framed  Plymouth 
Rocks  may  be  kept  in  good  condition  by  feeding  a  dry 
mash  containing  5  per  cent  less  meat  scrap  than  is  recom- 
mended for  general  use  and  only  feeding  the  same  weight 
of  scratch  grains  as  they  eat  of  the  mash. 

It  is  also  advisable  to  feed  the  scratch  grains  for  these 
fowls  in  a  deep  litter  and  to  make  the  hens  scratch  for 
their  feed.  Some  poultrymen  who  keep  these  heavier 
breeds  shut  up  the  dry  mash  hoppers  during  part  of  the 

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PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

day  to  prevent  the  fowls  from  eating  so  much  feed  and 
becoming  too  fat  to  produce  eggs  profitably. 

QUALITY   OF   FEED 

Grains  of  good  quality  and  in  good  condition  should 
be  used  in  feeding  poultry.  Fowls  and  chickens  are  very 
quickly  affected  by  spoiled  feeds  and  such  feeds  frequently 
cause  diarrhea  and  stop  the  hens  from  laying  for  several 
weeks.  Chicks  fed  such  feeds  are  prevented  from  grow- 
ing steadily.  Any  change  or  condition  of  feed  which 
temporarily  stops  egg  production  or  which  stops  the 
normal  growth  of  chicks  produces  serious  results  as  it 
takes  considerable  time  to  get  hens  back  into  good  laying 
condition  while  chickens  whose  growth  has  been  tem- 
porarily stopped  will  never  make  as  good  chickens  as  those 
which  have  grown  steadily  throughout  the  season. 

Grains  which  are  small  or  somewhat  shriveled  up,  but 
which  are  not  damaged  enough  to  make  them  unfit  for 
poultry  feeds  may  often  be  used  for  poultry  advantage- 
ously if  they  can  be  bought  at  a  price  considerably  under 
the  market  price  for  good  feeds.  The  slightly  damaged 
and  shrunken  feeds  are  often  sold  at  prices  only  a  little 
under  the  price  of  good  feeds  thereby  making  them  poor 
rather  than  good  investments.  Badly  musty  or  mouldy 
feeds  should  not  be  fed  to  any  kind  of  poultry  as  their 
use  is  apt  to  put  the  whole  flock  in  bad  condition  and  may 
result  in  considerable  mortality  in  the  fowls.  Feeds 
which  are  only  slightly  musty  may  be  fed  if  used  with 
care  but  should  be  dried  as  thoroughly  as  possible  by 

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POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

spreading  them  out  in  the  sunshine  or  in  a  thin  layer  on 
the  feed  room  floor  until  the  must  is  all  dried  up. 

Corn  and  corn  products  are  the  poultry  feeds  which 
are  most  apt  to  become  mouldy  or  musty  especially  dur- 
ing the  spring  and  early  summer.  Cracked  corn  and 
corn  meal  should  never  be  kept  in  large  quantities  during 
the  spring  and  summer  and  should,  if  possible,  be  cracked 
or  ground  only  a  short  time  before  they  are  used.  Pur- 
chase small  lots  of  these  feeds  at  that  season  of  the  year 
and  watch  their  condition  carefully.  If  the  grain  starts 
to  heat  in  the  bins  or  sacks,  work  it  over  several  times 
with  a  shovel  on  the  floor  of  the  feed  room  to  prevent 
heating.  Heated  feeds  or  those  which  have  been  wet 
will  quickly  get  musty  or  mouldy. 

Meat  scrap  frequently  gets  wet  and  cakes  up  and  be- 
comes mouldy,  making  it  very  essential  that  this  feed  be 
kept  in  a  dry  cool  place.  Great  care  should  be  exercised 
in  feeding  garbage  especially  garbage  containing  waste 
meat  products  to  avoid  feeding  any  decayed  meat  feeds. 

FEEDING  THE  GENERAL  FARM  FLOCK 

The  general  farmer  especially  if  he  grows  considerable 
grain  is  in  the  best  position  of  any  poultry  keeper  to  make 
money  from  his  fowls.  Poultry  having  free  range  on 
the  farm  will  pick  up  all  their  green  feed  and  a  very 
large  amount  of  waste  feed  including  grains,  seeds  and 
bugs.  More  or  less  waste  products  from  the  garden  as 
well  as  skim  or  butter  milk  are  also  available  for  feeding 
poultry  on  many  farms.  The  farmer  should  feed  home 

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PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

or  locally  grown  grains  if  possible,  feeding  at  least  two 
grains,  and  in  addition  a  mash  of  corn  meal  or  corn  chop 
and  bran  or  middlings  mixed  with  milk  if  available  or  if 
no  milk  is  used,  add  20  pounds  of  meat  scrap  or  tankage 
to  100  pounds  of  the  mash  in  winter  and  10  pounds  in 
summer. 

Some  kind  of  meat  scrap  or  milk  is  very  essential  dur- 
ing the  winter  months  and  it  pays  to  feed  these  products 
throughout  the  year  although  they  are  not  so  essential 
during  the  spring  and  summer  if  the  fowls  have  a  range 
where  they  can  pick  up  a  considerable  number  of  insects 
and  bugs.  The  use  of  a  self-feeder  for  hogs  has  been  a 
great  aid  to  poultry  on  general  farms  as  they  are  also 
able  to  get  this  hog  feed  thereby  furnishing  them  suffi- 
cient grain  and  tankage  to  make  up  for  the  feed  lacking 
on  their  range. 

Fowls  on  the  average  farm  should  be  allowed  free 
range  if  possible  as  this  range  furnishes  all  the  green 
feed  needed  as  well  as  a  large  amount  of  other  feed  and 
at  the  same  time  keeps  the  poultry  in  the  very  best  of 
physical  condition.  Fence  the  garden  and  let  the  chickens 
have  free  range.  If  possible  keep  the  growing  stock  in  a 
separate  place  or  at  a  considerable  distance  away  from 
the  older  hens  so  that  the  chickens  will  have  a  good 
chance  to  make  good  growth. 

Place  the  poultry  house  where  it  will  be  as  convenient 
as  possible  without  having  it  so  near  the  house  that  the 
fowls  will  become  a  nuisance  around  the  home.  Keep  a 
dry  mash  before  the  hens  all  of  the  time  or  feed  a  moist 

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POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

mash  once  daily  if  no  dry  mash  is  provided.  Be  sure 
that  the  fowls  get  some  kind  of  meat  feed  or  tankage 
especially  during  the  winter.  Always  give  the  fowls  a 
good  feed  of  grain  at  night  and  they  should  have  a  light 
feed  of  grain  in  the  morning.  The  amount  of  grain  to 
feed  in  the  morning  depends  upon  the  amount  of  feed 
available  on  the  range.  Feed  more  than  one  grain,  always 
using  two  or  three  grains  for  variety. 

FEEDING  THE  BACKYARD  FLOCK 

The  small  flock  kept  in  the  village  or  city  backyard 
should  be  given  a  light  feed  of  scratch  grains  in  the  litter 
early  in  the  morning,  kitchen  garbage  or  table  scraps  at 
noon,  and  a  good  feed  of  scratch  grains  late  in  the  after- 
noon. The  table  scraps  may  be  fed  in  the  morning  with 
a  very  little  feed  of  scratch  grains  and  no  feed  be  given 
to  the  hens  at  noon,  if  it  is  more  convenient  to  feed  the 
table  scraps  in  the  morning  than  later  in  the  day.  Feed 
2  or  3  times  as  much  grain  in  the  afternoon  as  is  fed  in 
the  morning  and  always  be  sure  that  the  fowls  go  to 
roost  with  a  full  crop,  especially  in  the  winter  when  the 
nights  are  long  and  cold. 

It  is  often  advisable  to  mix  a  small  amount  of  dry 
or  moist  mash  with  the  table  scraps  unless  one  has  a  very 
abundant  supply  of  waste  products.  Keep  dry  mash  be- 
fore the  hens  during  the  latter  part  of  the  day,  opening 
the  dry  mash  hopper  when  the  hens  are  given  their  after- 
noon feed  and  leaving  it  open  until  they  are  fed  the  fol- 
lowing morning  or  noon.  This  method  of  feeding  pro- 

142 


w  < 
w  w 


11 


i! 
fi 


a  w 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

vides  the  hens  always  with  sufficient  feed  but  keeps  them 
hungry  during  the  early  part  of  the  day  so  that  they  will 
clean  up  all  of  the  table  scraps  available.  Feed  the  scraps 
in  troughs  preferably  on  a  feeding  board  especially  in 
the  summer  or  at  least  use  some  method  whereby  the 
troughs  in  which  the  scraps  are  fed,  and  the  place  around 
them,  may  be  kept  absolutely  clean.  This  is  very  essential 
because  when  the  waste  products  which  the  fowls  do  not 
eat  get  mixed  with  the  ground  it  makes  a  very  unsanitary 
place  which  may  result  in  decayed  products  and  cause 
heavy  mortality  in  the  flock. 

It  is  also  very  necessary  to  be  sure  that  the  table  or 
kitchen  scraps  are  in  good  condition  and  do  not  contain 
any  decayed  meat  or  a  large  amount  of  salt  or  salty  meat 
as  these  products  are  especially  injurious  to  fowls.  If 
more  waste  products  are  available  than  are  readily  eaten 
by  the  fowls  it  may  pay  to  put  these  products  through  a 
meat  or  feed  chopper  to  get  them  into  a  more  palatable 
form  so  that  the  fowls  will  consume  a  larger  quantity. 
Vegetables  and  feeds  do  not  need  to  be  cooked  for  poultry 
except  small  potatoes,  which  should  be  boiled. 

Green  and  succulent  feed  should  be  provided  and  a 
large  supply  is  usually  available  to  the  backyard  poultry 
keeper  during  the  growing  season,  consisting  of  weeds 
and  waste  vegetables  from  the  garden  and  fresh  lawn 
clippings.  During  the  summer  and  fall  any  part  of  the 
garden  not  used  for  vegetables  may  be  sown  to  oats  or 
rye  and  this  growing  green  feed  cut  when  it  is  three  to 
six  inches  high  and  fed  to  the  hens  or  to  growing  chickens. 

143 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

Where  double  yards  are  used  considerable  green  feed  can 
be  supplied  to  the  fowls  by  sowing  grain  four  times  during 
the  year  in  whichever  yard  is  vacant,  alternating  these 
yards  and  allowing  the  fowls  to  range  on  this  green  feed 
when  it  is  two  to  four  inches  high. 

When  only  one  yard  is  available  part  of  it  should  be 
sown  to  a  quick  growing  grain  crop  to  freshen  the  land 
at  least  twice  each  year,  confining  the  hens  temporarily 
to  a  small  part  of  the  yard  near  the  house.  The  hens  may 
sometimes  be  allowed  to  range  on  the  lawn  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  day  and  part  or  all  of  the  vegetable 
garden  may  be  used  as  a  poultry  range  during  certain 
periods  of  the  year,  by  using  a  temporary  fence  around 
the  garden,  if  conditions  are  such  that  the  hens  cannot  be 
allowed  to  go  free.  Two  permanent  yards  large  enough 
so  that  they  can  be  kept  in  green  grass  by  alternating 
them  every  two  or  three  weeks  makes  the  ideal  arrange- 
ments both  for  yards  and  green  feed  but  requires  more 
room  than  is  usually  available  in  backyard  poultry  rais- 
ing. Cabbages  and  mangel  beets  may  be  raised  for  use 
during  the  winter  or  sprouted  oats  should  be  provided  if 
no  other  green  feed  is  available. 

Two  or  more  grains  may  be  bought  for  the  scratch 
feed  or  a  commercial  scratch  feed  may  be  used.  Be  sure 
that  the  grain  is  of  good  quality  and  in  good  condition. 
Commercial  mash  feeds  may  be  purchased  or  the  separate 
feeds  may  be  bought  and  the  mash  mixed  at  home. 
Wherever  sufficient  feed  is  used  to  make  it  worth  while 
to  mix  in  half  or  ton  lots  and  a  good  place  is  available 

144 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

to  hold  the  feed,  it  may  be  found  cheaper  to  mix  one's 
ration  than  it  is  to  buy  the  commercial  mixtures. 

In  addition  to  the  analysis  the  quality  of  the  feed  must 
be  carefully  considered  to  see  that  it  is  in  good  condition 
and  free  from  musty,  mouldy,  or  shriveled  feed.  Oyster 
shell,  grit,  charcoal  and  fresh  clean  water  should  always 
be  kept  before  the  fowls. 


CHAPTER  X 

EGG    LAYING   RATIONS 

Selection  of  a  Ration,  Select  a  ration  of  palatable 
feeds  made  up  of  grains  available  in  your  section  which 
are  lowest  in  price  and  which  will  supply  a  balanced  ration 
for  the  fowls.  The  same  ration  can  be  fed  to  advantage 
throughout  the  year  without  changing  its  composition. 
Adapt  the  method  of  feeding  and  the  amount  of  feed  to 
the  time  of  the  year  and  condition  of  the  stock.  A  larger 
proportion  of  scratch  feed  than  of  mash  should  be  fed  in 
the  fall  and  about  equal  parts  of  scratch  feed  and  mash 
during  the  winter,  while  more  mash  than  scratch  feed 
is  consumed  in  the  spring  and  early  summer.  In  selecting 
the  best  feeds,  study  the  market  and  compare  the  grains 
according  to  their  analysis,  always  considering  whether 
or  not  these  grains  are  well  relished  and  are  palatable  to 
the  fowl.  An  extensive  list  of  good  egg  laying  rations  is 
given  in  Table  I  in  the  appendix  of  this  book. 

Corn,  wheat,  oats  and  barley  are  the  principal  grains 
fed  to  poultry,  while  Kaffir  corn,  buckwheat,  feterita  and 
Egyptian  corn  are  good  feeds  to  use  in  certain  sections. 
Corn  and  wheat  are  the  two  best  grains,  being  about  equal 
in  value  as  poultry  feeds,  although  neither  one  gives  good 
results  if  fed  alone  as  corn  is  inclined  to  be  too  fattening 
and  wheat  does  not  contain  all  of  the  necessary  characters 
to  make  a  good  feed  by  itself. 

146 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

Oats  and  barley  on  account  of  their  hulls  and  higher 
fiber  content  are  not  as  good  as  corn  or  wheat.  Oats  are 
usually  better  relished  by  fowls  than  is  barley,  especially 
if  a  good  grade  of  heavy  oats  is  available. 

Rye  is  not  well  relished  by  fowls  and  its  use  is  not 
advised  except  in  limited  quantities  in  sections  where  it  is 
relatively  low  in  price.  Wheat  screening  or  slightly 
damaged  feeds  sometimes  may  be  bought  to  advantage, 
their  value  depending  entirely  upon  their  quality  and  con- 
dition, but  as  a  rule  only  sound  grain  in  good  condition 
should  be  fed  to  poultry  and  mouldy  grains  should  never 
be  used. 

BALANCED   RATIONS 

A  properly  balanced  egg-laying  ration  is  a  combination 
of  feeds  which  furnish  just  the  necessary  amount  of 
nutrients  (protein,  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  fat)  to  pro^ 
duce  the  highest  egg  yield  which  is  economical.  Protein 
is  a  nitrogenous  nutrient  which  supplies  material  for  body 
structure,  while  nitrogen-free  extract  consists  of  the 
starches  and  sugars,  and  supplies  heat,  energy,  and  fat. 
Feeds  used  primarily  to  supply  protein  are  meat  scraps, 
fish  meal,  milk  products,  and  cottonseed  meal.  Feeds 
especially  high  in  nitrogen-free  extract  are  corn,  wheat, 
oats,  and  their  by-products, 

THE  NUTRITIVE  RATIO 

A  good  egg-laying  ration  should  include  ( i )  a  scratch 
mixture  and  (2)  a  mash  composed  of  palatable  feeds 

147 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

containing  some  animal  protein  feed,  considerable  bulk, 
and  supplying  roughly  about  i  part  of  protein  to  4^2  or 
5  parts  of  carbohydrates  and  fat,  the  fat  being  changed 
to  terms  of  carbohydrates,  which  is  done  by  multiplying 
the  fat  by  2j^.  The  proportion  of  digestible  protein  to 
the  total  digestible  carbohydrates  is  called  the  nutritive 
ratio,  as  given  in  the  Appendix. 

Sufficient  experiments  have  not  been  conducted  in 
poultry  feeding  to  determine  the  exact  digestive  value  of 
the  various  grains  for  poultry,  as  has  been  done  with 
cattle.  Therefore  either  the  total  composition  of  the  feed- 
stuffs  or  the  digestible  composition  may  be  used  in  figur- 
ing this  nutritive  ratio.  In  figuring  the  nutritive  ratios 
in  this  book  the  fiber  is  included  in  the  carbohydrates,  but 
very  little  fiber  is  digested  by  poultry.  The  composition 
of  the  various  poultry  feeds  is  shown  in  Table  (2)  in  the 
rear  of  this  book.  The  digestible  composition  of  these 
feeds  as  secured  from  experiments  with  animals  is  also 
given  in  that  .same  table. 

VALUE  OF  ANIMAL  PROTEIN   FEEDS 

Meat  scrap  or  some  other  animal  feed  high  in  protein 
is  the  one  essential  constituent  of  the  mash  which  cannot 
well  be  omitted  and  is  the  part  of  the  ration  usually  lack- 
ing, both  on  the  farm  and  with  the  small  poultry  keeper. 
There  is  no  other  part  of  the  ration  which  will  give 
greater  returns  than  the  meat  part  of  the  feed  and  no 
other  part  which  if  omitted  will  reduce  egg  production 
more  than  the  meat  feed.  In  experiments  conducted  at 

148 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

the  government  farm  at  Beltsville,  Maryland,  a  pen  of 
pullets  on  free  range  which  did  not  get  meat  scrap  or 
any  other  animal  protein  feed,  laid  an  average  of  only 
90  eggs  each  in  a  year  compared  with  yields  of  from  125 
to  150  eggs  from  similar  pens  of  fowls  which  were  fed 
rations  containing  meat  scrap.  The  eggs  from  the  pen 
where  no  meat  scrap  was  fed  cost  several  cents  more  a 
dozen  for  feed  than  from  pens  where  the  meat  scrap  was 
included  in  the  ration. 

Experiments  conducted  at  Purdue  University  in 
Indiana  showed  an  average  production  of  only  59  eggs 
from  hens  without  meat  scrap  or  animal  feed  as  compared 
with  179  eggs  from  those  receiving  meat  scrap  or  milk. 
These  hens  were  confined  to  yards  where  they  did  not  get 
the  opportunity  to  pick  up  any  bugs  or  waste  products 
which  the  fowls  did  in  the  experiments  on  the  government 
farm  showing  that  the  importance  of  meat  feed  is  even 
more  essential  where  hens  are  confined  than  where  they 
are  allowed  free  range. 

Even  with  free  range  conditions  on  the  general  farm, 
where  fowls  can  pick  up  many  bugs,  insects,  and  waste 
products  the  value  of  meat  scrap  or  milk  is  very  great 
and  is  not  sufficiently  appreciated  by  the  farmers.  On  such 
farms  the  amount  of  meat  scrap  can  be  reduced  in  the 
spring  and  summer  months  to  about  half  of  what  is  ad- 
vised for  winter  use.  Fish  meal  or  fish  scrap  can  be  used 
to  replace  the  meat  scrap  and  compares  favorably  with  a 
good  grade  of  meat  scrap  containing  the  same  per  cent  of 
protein.  In  considering  the  relative  value  of  these  two 

149 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

feeds,  base  it  entirely  on  their  protein  content.  Skim 
milk  or  buttermilk,  either  sweet  or  sour,  is  excellent  for 
replacing  part  or  all  of  the  meat  scrap.  The  milk  may  be 
used  in  mixing  the  mash  if  a  moist  mash  is  fed,  or  can  be 
kept  before  the  fowls  as  a  drink.  Where  it  is  provided 
constantly  before  the  fowls  they  should  also  have  some 
meat  scrap. 

A  small  amount  of  bone  meal  may  be  added  to  the 
mash,  using  two  per  cent  which  can  be  used  to  replace 
that  amount  of  meat  scrap.  Green  cut  bone,  if  fresh  and 
sweet,  will  take  the  place  of  meat  scrap  if  fed  at  the  rate 
of  half  an  ounce  per  hen  daily.  If  too  much  of  this  bone 
is  fed  it  will  give  the  fowls  diarrhea  or  cause  looseness 
of  the  bowels.  The  difficulty  with  green  cut  bone  is  to 
get  this  material  while  it  is  in  a  fresh  sweet  condition 
as  well  as  the  large  amount  of  labor  of  grinding  it  up  for 
the  poultry,  unless  one  has  some  convenient  form  of 
power.  The  use  of  table  scraps  and  cooked  vegetables 
will  help  to  reduce  the  necessary  meat  feed  from  one-third 
to  one-half,  depending  on  the  quantity  of  meat  products 
in  the  scraps. 

VEGETABLE  PROTEIN  FEEDS 

High  vegetable  protein  feeds  will  not  entirely  replace 
meat  or  animal  protein  feeds  to  advantage,  but  in  sections 
where  the  former  are  produced  they  may  be  used  to  re- 
place about  half  or  slightly  less  of  the  meat  scrap.  In 
experiments  conducted  at  the  government  poultry  farm  at 
Beltsville,  Maryland,  cotton  seed  meal  gave  the  best  re- 

150 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

suits  of  any  of  the  high  vegetable  protein  feeds,  using  an 
equal  amount  of  cotton  seed  meal  and  of  meat  scrap  in 
the  mash.  The  other  high  protein  feeds  which  gave 
good  results,  named  in  their  relative  order  of  value  were ; 
peanut  meal  and  soy  bean  meal,  while  velvet  bean  meal 
did  not  prove  very  satisfactory.  Fairly  good  results  were 
obtained  in  using  these  high  vegetable  protein  feeds  where 
mashes  containing  10  per  cent  of  the  high  vegetable 
protein  feed  and  15  per  cent  of  meat  scrap  were  fed.  An- 
other successful  ration  of  several  vegetable  protein  feeds 
mixed  with  a  little  dried  buttermilk  is  also  given  in  the 
Appendix. 

Not  more  than  one-tenth  of  the  mash  should  be  com- 
posed of  cotton  seed  meal  as  the  use  of  a  larger  proportion 
of  cotton  seed  meal  will  cut  down  the  egg  yield  materially 
and  may  affect  the  quality  of  the  eggs,  producing  spots 
and  blotches  on  the  yolks  which  make  them  unattractive 
and  unmarketable.  Other  of  the  vegetable  protein  feeds 
which  can  be  used  with  success  for  poultry  are  gluten  and 
linseed  meal. 


COMMERCIAL  SCRATCH   MIXTURES  AND   MASHES 

Commercial  scratch  mixtures  and  mashes  have  their 
place  in  poultry  feeding,  especially  for  the  person  keeping 
only  a  small  flock  as  discussed  under  the  subject  of  feed- 
ing a  backyard  flock  on  page  142.  Very  good  grades  of 
commercial  feeds  are  available  but  should  be  carefully 
selected  from  a  study  of  their  analysis,  especially  their 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

protein  content,  which  should  be  comparatively  high,  and 
the  fiber  content  which  should  be  low. 

Commercial  poultry  feeds  are  stamped  on  the  bag  with 
a  general  statement  of  contents  which  is  supposed  to 
tell  what  constituents  are  in  the  feeds  but  does  not  give 
the  proportions  of  the  various  grains.  The  bag  also  has 
an  analysis  of  the  feed  usually  given  in  the  terms  of 
protein,  fiber,  carbohydrates  and  fat,  the  carbohydrates 
representing  the  sum  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract  plus 
the  fiber. 

The  protein  in  the  mash  should  be  largely  of  an  animal 
source  and  not  be  derived  in  any  great  percentage  from  a 
vegetable  source,  other  than  that  ordinarily  furnished 
through  the  common  grains  such  as  corn,  wheat  and  oats 
and  their  by-products. 

The  fiber  content  is  also  given  and  the  amount  of  this 
is  quite  an  important  factor  in  poultry  feeds  as  hens  do 
not  utilize  fiber  to  advantage.  While  the  analysis  of 
commercial  feeds  varies  considerably  a  protein  content 
of  15  to  20  per  cent,  carbohydrates  of  50  to  60  per  cent, 
and  fat  of  4  to  6  per  cent  with  crude  fiber  not  exceeding 
6  to  10  per  cent  indicates  a  good  general  mash.  A  good 
general  scratch  mixture  should  have  the  following 
analysis;  protein  8  to  10  per  cent,  carbohydrates  60  to 
70  per  cent,  fat  2  to  4  per  cent,  fiber  not  exceeding  5  per 
cent.  It  should  always  be  remembered  that  the  analysis 
is  not  the  only  consideration  as  the  kind  and  quality  of 
feed  should  also  be  carefully  considered  and  unless  feeds 
are  used  that  are  well  relished  and  palatable  to  the  fowls 

152 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

and  are  also  of  good  quality,  they  will  not  give  good  re- 
sults regardless  of  their  analysis. 

Large  feed  companies  are  able  to  purchase,  store  and 
mix  grains  in  very  large  quantities  and  thereby  are  able 
to  handle  feeds  more  economically  than  .small  feed 
dealers.  During  certain  seasons,  especially  during  spring, 
these  large  companies  are  able  to  supply  a  much  better 
grade  of  cracked  corn  and  some  other  feeds  which  are 
apt  to  spoil  readily,  than  are  smaller  dealers.  For  these 
reasons  commercial  mixed  feeds  are  often  sold  at  prices 
which  make  them  a  good  investment  for  the  poultry 
keeper. 

On  the  other  hand  there  is  more  or  less  distributing 
and  operating  costs  connected  with  the  handling  of  these 
commercial  feeds  which  must  be  added  to  their  price. 
By  buying  the  mixed  feeds  the  poultryman  or  poultry 
keeper  can  get  a  variety  of  feeds  without  purchasing  a 
large  quantity  of  each  feed  which  he  may  have  to  keep 
under  conditions  whereby  they  are  subject  to  waste  by 
rats,  mice  and  other  destructive  forces.  Most  poultry- 
men  agree  that  it  pays  to  get  mixed  chick  feeds  on  account 
of  the  danger  of  getting  cracked  corn  in  the  spring  which 
does  not  keep  well  or  which  will  heat  and  become  mouldy 
or  musty. 

The  cracked  corn  and  chick  grain  handled  by  the  large 
feed  companies  usually  contains  a  kiln-dried  corn  which 
has  been  held  by  them  for  some  time,  often  for  more  than 
one  year,  to  be  sure  that  it  is  perfectly  dry  and  the  product 
is  in  good  condition.  Each  poultryman  or  poultry  keeper 

153 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

must  decide  for  himself  as  to  whether  his  operations  and 
conditions  are  such  that  it  is  more  economical  to  purchase 
separate  feeds  or  to  mix  his  own  rations. 

There  are  various  poultry  feeds  put  on  the  market 
which  in  general  come  under  the  following  heads :  Chick 
feed  and  chick  mash,  which  are  fed  to  newly  hatched 
chicks  until  they  are  8  or  10  weeks  old;  growing  scratch 
feeds  and  growing  mashes,  to  be  fed  after  the  chick  feeds 
are  discontinued  and  until  the  cockerels  are  marketed  and 
the  pullets  are  put  in  their  laying  quarters;  and  laying 
mashes  and  scratch  feeds,  which  are  fed  to  both  pullets 
and  hens.  Most  of  the  states  have  quite  strict  feed  laws 
now,  whereby  the  state  experiment  station  or  some 
designated  official  has  charge  of  the  feed  inspection  for 
the  state  and  information  as  to  whether  any  brand  or 
make  of  commercial  feed  corresponds  to  the  analysis  can 
be  secured  from  the  experiment  station. 

EFFECT  OF  FEED  ON  QUALITY  OF  EGGS 

Feeding  affects  the  quality  of  the  eggs  within  rather 
broad  limits  but  a  considerable  variation  of  ration  can 
be  used  without  a  noticeable  effect  on  quality,  as  long  as 
the  feeds  are  in  good  condition.  Fowls  fed  a  well-bal- 
anced ration  are  able  to  convert  these  feeds  into  high 
quality  eggs  and  the  variation  within  reasonable  limits 
does  not  affect  either  the  quality,  composition  or  the  size 
of  the  egg.  If  abnormal  rations  are  fed  they  may  and 
often  do  affect  the  eggs,  producing  either  poorer  quality 
eggs  or  affecting  the  size,  making  smaller  eggs.  Fowls 

154 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

on  farms  which  are  fed  only  a  very  small  amount  of  grain 
and  left  largely  on  grass  feeds  may  produce  eggs  which 
are  weak  and  watery  and  not  of  good  quality. 

In  purchasing  grains,  corn  and  corn  meal  are  the 
products  especially  subject  to  mould  and  must,  and  should 
be  carefully  examined  in  the  spring  and  summer  for 
spoiled  feed.  If  these  feeds  have  been  wet  they  will  spoil 
quickly  during  that  time  of  the  year.  Corn  which  has  not 
been  properly  cured  will  have  a  green  heart,  the  inside  of 
which  is  very  harmful  and  poisonous  to  fowls,  and  espe- 
cially so  to  young  chickens. 

Meat  scrap  and  mixed  mashes  which  have  been  sacked 
and  held  for  some  time  will  cake  up  and  get  mouldy  if 
they  have  been  wet,  making  them  unfit  for  feeding.  Be 
careful  in  feeding  grains  in  the  fall  before  they  are  thor- 
oughly cured,  especially  corn.  Soft  wheat  which  is  not 
thoroughly  cured  and  dried  is  also  dangerous.  Rye  is 
not  used  much  in  feeding  poultry,  but  if  used  care  should 
be  taken  to  see  that  there  is  no  ergot  in  it  as  this  will  have 
a  very  detrimental  effect  on  the  poultry  flock. 

Cottonseed  meal  as  discussed  on  page  151  if  fed  in 
large  quantities  will  affect  the  appearance  of  the  yolks 
of  the  eggs.  The  feeding  of  onions  and  large  quantities 
of  rape  to  fowls  which  have  not  had  rape  previously  may 
affect  the  flavor  of  the  eggs.  Feeding  of  large  amounts 
of  slop  garbage  will  also  affect  the  quality  of  the  eggs, 
producing  weak  or  watery  eggs.  Spoiled  feeds  or  those 
not  adapted  for  poultry  usually  stop  production  before 
they  have  had  much  opportunity  to  affect  the  quality  of 

155 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

the  eggs.    Musty  and  mouldy  feeds  will  usually  stop  egg 
production. 

The  color  of  the  yolk  of  eggs  is  readily  affected  by  the 
feed.  Green  feed  is  the  material  which  gives  yellow  color- 
ing to  the  yolks,  while  yellow  corn  also  gives  the  yellowish 
or  golden  color  to  the  yolk.  Oats,  wheat,  and  white  corn 
tend  to  give  a  light  or  pale  color  to  the  yolks  and  the 
yolks  ordinarily  are  much  yellower  and  deeper  colored 
in  the  spring  and  summer  when  the  birds  have  range  on 
grass  land,  than  they  are  in  the  winter  months  when  the 
quantity  of  green  feed  is  limited.  The  color  of  yolks 
of  eggs  can  be  readily  changed  by  the  feeding  of  aniline 
dyes  showing  how  quickly  and  readily  this  color  factor  is 
affected. 


156 


CHAPTER   XI 

FEEDING  AND  FATTENING  CHICKENS 

Feeding  Baby  Chicks.  Young  chickens  should  be  fed 
from  3  to  5  times  daily  depending  upon  one's  experience 
in  feeding.  Undoubtedly  chickens  can  be  grown  faster 
by  feeding  five  times  daily  than  by  feeding  three  times 
daily,  but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  more  harm  can 
be  done  to  the  young  chickens  by  overfeeding  than  by 
underfeeding,  and  at  no  time  should  they  be  fed  more 
than  barely  to  satisfy  their  appetites  and  to  keep  them 
exercising,  except  at  the  evening  or  last  meal,  when  they 
should  be  given  all  they  will  eat.  Greater  care  must  be 
taken  not  to  overfeed  young  chicks  that  are  confined  than 
those  that  have  free  range,  as  leg  weakness  is  likely  to 
-esult  in  those  confined. 

The  young  chicks  should  not  be  fed  until  they  are  about 
48  hours  old,  whether  they  are  with  the  hen  or  in  a 
brooder.  If  home  mixing  of  feed  is  to  be  followed  the 
first  feed  should  consist  of  baked  johnnycake  broken  up 
into  small  pieces,  or  hard-boiled  eggs  mixed  with  stale 
bread  crumbs  or  rolled  oats,  using  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
the  latter  to  make  a  dry  crumbly  mixture,  or  a  mash  of  2 
parts  rolled  oats,  i  part  bran  and  i  part  middlings  by 
weight,  mixed  with  milk  or  with  boiled  eggs.  These 
feeds  or  combinations  of  feeds  may  be  used  with  good 

157 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

results  for  the  first  three  or  four  days.  Then  gradually 
substitute  daily  for  two  feeds  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
finely  cracked  wheat,  cracked  corn,  and  pinhead  oatmeal 
or  hulled  oats  to  which  may  be  added  a  small  quantity  of 
broken  rice,  millet,  or  rapeseed,  or  all  combined,  and 
charcoal  if  obtainable.  If  corn  cannot  be  had,  cracked 
kafir,  rolled  or  hulled  barley  may  be  substituted. 

Commercial  baby  chick  scratch  and  chick  mash  may  be 
fed  to  good  advantage  in  place  of  the  home  mixed  feeds 
and  can  be  bought  from  almost  any  feed  dealer.  Buying 
these  ready  mixed  feeds  for  small  chickens  is  much  simpler 
than  securing  the  separate  grains  and  no  more  expensive 
unless  good  sized  quantities  of  feed  are  to  be  bought,  and 
even  then  better  results  are  apt  to  be  secured,  for  the 
variety  of  feeds  is  wider  and  the  mixing  and  milling 
more  uniform. 

Milk  in  some  form  is  very  beneficial  for  small  chickens 
and  may  be  kept  before  them  as  a  drink  and  also  used  in 
mixing  this  moist  mash.  Giving  the  chickens  a  drink  of 
milk  for  the  first  feed  is  an  excellent  practice. 

HOW  TO   MAKE  JOHNNYCAKE 

Corn  meal,  5  pounds;  infertile  eggs  (tested  out  from 
settings  or  from  an  incubator),  6  pounds,  and  baking 
soda,  i  tablespoonful.  Mix  with  milk  to  make  a  stiff 
batter  and  bake  thoroughly.  When  infertile  eggs  are  not 
available  use  a  double  quantity  of  baking  soda  and  add 
one-half  pound  of  sifted  meat  scrap. 

158 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

When  the  chicks  are  about  10  days  or  2  weeks  old,  use 
a  growing  mash  composed  of  the  following  to  take  the 
place  of  the  johnnycake  or  bread : 

MASH  FOR  LITTLE  CHICKS 

Rolled  oats,  i  part  by  weight;  bran,  2  parts;  corn 
meal,  i  part;  middlings,  I  part,  and  10  per  cent  sifted 
meat  scrap. 

This  mash  may  be  placed  in  a  hopper  where  it  will  not 
be  wasted  and  left  before  the  chicks  at  all  times  or  it  may 
be  fed  as  a  moist,  crumbly  mash  once  daily,  feeding  suit- 
able chick  grains  three  times  a  day.  When  the  chickens 
are  8  or  10  weeks  old  add  I  part  of  ground  oats  and  in- 
crease the  meat  scrap  to  I  part,  the  corn  meal  to  2  parts, 
and  decrease  the  bran  to  I  part  in  the  mash.  As  soon  as 
the  chickens  will  eat  the  whole  wheat,  cracked  corn,  and 
other  grains,  the  small  sized  chick  feed  can  be  eliminated 
and  the  chicks  are  fed  only  3  times  a  day.  The  chickens' 
growth  can  be  hastened  if  they  are  given  sour  milk,  skim 
milk  or  buttermilk  to  drink  in  addition  to  th£  feeds,  and 
milk  is  splendid  to  mix  with  the  mash. 

FEED  FOR  GROWING  CHICKENS 

Growing  chickens  kept  on  a  good  range  may  be  given 
all  their  feed  in  a  hopper,  mixing  2  parts  by  weight  of 
cracked  corn  with  i  part  of  wheat,  or  equal  parts  of 
cracked  corn,  wheat,  and  oats  in  one  hopper  and  the  dry 
mash  in  another.  The  beef  scrap  may  be  left  out  of  the 

159 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

dry  mash  and  fed  in  a  separate  hopper,  so  that  the 
chickens  can  eat  all  of  this  they  desire.  If  the  beef  scrap 
is  to  be  fed  separately  it  is  advisable  to  wait  until  the 
chicks  are  10  days  old,  although  many  poultry  men  put 
the  beef  scrap  before  the  young  chickens  from  the  first 
without  bad  results. 

Chickens  confined  to  small  yards  should  always  be 
supplied  with  green  feed,  such  as  lettuce,  sprouted  oats, 
alfalfa,  or  clover,  but  the  best  place  to  raise  chickens  suc- 
cessfully is  on  a  good  range  where  no  extra  green  feed 
is  required.  Fine  charcoal,  grit  and  oyster  shell  should 
be  kept  before  the  chickens  at  all  times,  and  cracked  or 
ground  bone  may  be  fed  where  the  chickens  are  kept  in 
small  bare  yards,  but  the  latter  feed  is  not  necessary  for 
chickens  that  have  a  good  range. 

The  amount  of  feed  required  to  grow  chickens  depends 
very  largely  on  what  success  one  has  in  rearing  the 
chicks  as  the  amount  of  feed  required  per  chicken  is  quite 
different  if  5  per  cent  of  the  chickens  die  than  if  25  per 
cent  of  them  die  before  maturity.  This  makes  it  difficult 
to  give  accurate  figures  on  this  subject  but  records  kept 
at  the  Connecticut  Experiment  Station  show  that  it  took 
17  pounds  of  feed  to  grow  Rhode  Island  Red  chickens  to 
24  weeks,  and  37  pounds  to  grow  them  up  to  32  weeks. 
Leghorns  at  this  same  station  took  20  pounds  of  feed  to 
grow  them  to  24  weeks  of  age.  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks 
at  the  Canadian  Experiment  Station  at  Ottawa  ate  5  5/10 
pounds  of  feed  up  to  10  weeks  and  19.75  pounds  up  to 
20  weeks  of  age. 

1 60 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

FATTENING  POULTRY  FOR  MARKET 

It  pays  to  have  poultry  in  good  flesh  before  it  is  mar- 
keted and  all  thin  chickens  should  be  fattened  for  one  to 
three  weeks  before  they  are  marketed.  The  cost  of  put- 
ting on  this  extra  weight  is  usually  considerably  less  than 
either  the  market  price  of  chickens  or  the  cost  per  pound 
of  rearing  chickens  to  market  age.  Growing  chickens 
which  are  thin  or  in  an  unfinished  condition  can  be  fat- 
tened profitably  while  hens  which  have  been  properly  fed 
are  usually  in  good  flesh  and  do  not  need  any  special  fat- 
tening. It  is  much  more  profitable  to,  fatten  chickens  than 
hens  although  hens  which  are  thin  may  be  fattened  to 
advantage.  In  addition  to  increasing  the  quantity  of 
flesh  by  fattening,  the  quality  is  also  greatly  improved 
which  should  make  the  well- fattened  chicken  command  a 
higher  price  per  pound  than  the  ordinary  chicken  which 
is  not  specially  fattened.  Farmers  and  handlers  of  all 
kinds  of  livestock  recognize  the  value  of  fattening  hogs 
and  cattle  for  market  but  often  do  not  realize  that  the 
same  opportunity  for  profit  and  improvement  exists  in  the 
fattening  of  poultry. 

BEST  CHICKENS  TO  FATTEN 

The  greatest,  cheapest  and  most  profitable  gains  are 
made  on  early  broilers  because  broilers  will  not  only  make 
far  greater  percentage  gains  than  larger  chickens  but  they 
also  bring  the  highest  market  prices  per  pound,  especially 
those  sold  early  in  the  season.  Broilers  or  any  small- 

161 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

sized  chickens  can  be  fattened  at  a  profit  for  a  longer 
period  than  can  roasters  or  large  chickens.  Chickens 
weighing  one  to  ij/2  pounds  are  classed  as  squab  broilers, 
those  weighing  il/2  to  2^/2  as  broilers,  while  friers  is  the 
term  applied  to  chickens  weighing  from  2^/2  to  about  3/^2 
pounds.  Chickens  weighing  more  than  this  are  called 
roasters. 

As  large  chickens  tend  to  become  harden  flesh  which 
is  indicated  both  by  the  hardening  of  the  end  of  their 
keel  bones  and  by  the  beginning  of  the  growth  of  spurs 
which  appear  like  small  buttons  on  their  legs,  they  are 
classified  as  stags  and  are  sold  at  a  much  lower  price  than 
roasters.  General  purpose  breeds  such  as  Plymouth 
Rocks,  Wyandottes,  Orpingtons  and  Rhode  Island  Reds, 
produce  the  best  chickens  for  fattening.  Chickens  of  these 
breeds  can  be  marketed  to  advantage  at  most  any  time 
during  their  growing  period,  producing  good  broilers, 
friers  or  roasters. 

Leghorn  chickens  do  not  make  good  friers  or  roasters 
and  should  be  marketed  as  broilers  when  they  weigh 
from  one  to  two  pounds.  Fowls  of  the  heavier  breeds 
usually  sell  at  prices  ranging  from  one  to  three  cents  a 
pound  more  than  do  light  breeds  of  hens,  such  as  Leg- 
horns. Chickens  with  black  legs  or  those  with  feathers 
on  their  legs  are  undesirable  for  fattening  as  they  make 
an  unattractive  appearance  when  dressed  for  market. 
Rapid  growth,  a  good  meat  type  at  any  age  and  early 
maturity  are  important  factors  in  the  production  of  mar- 
ket poultry. 

162 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

METHODS  OF  PEN  FATTENING 

The  two  methods  of  fattening  chickens  that  are  of 
importance  in  this  country  are  pen  fattening  and  crate 
fattening.  Pen  fattening  takes  less  labor  and  equipment 
than  is  necessary  in  crate  fattening  and  is  a  better  method 
for  most  farm  conditions.  A  better  grade  of  poultry, 
however,  is  obtained  in  crate  fattening  as  the  chickens 
are  confined  to  smaller  quarters  and  their  flesh  is  thereby 
made  more  tender.  Crate  fattening  is  used  entirely  in 
the  commercial  fattening  stations.  In  pen  fattening  20 
to  50  chickens  are  usually  confined  in  a  pen  with  a  small 
yard  and  are  fed  a  fattening  mash.  This  special  fatten- 
ing increases  their  weight  materially  while  the  confine- 
ment tends  not  only  to  soften  their  flesh  but  at  the  same 
time  allows  practically  all  their  feed  to  be  used  in  pro- 
ducing flesh  and  fat. 

A  good  fattening  mash  for  pen  fattening  is  made  of  one 
part  bran,  one  part  middling,  3  parts  corn  meal  and 
one-fourth  part  meat  scrap  by  weight.  Green  feed  should 
be  provided  if  the  chickens  are  kept  confined  and  have 
no  green  feed  in  their  yards.  If  buttermilk  or  skim  milk 
is  available  it  provides  one  of  the  very  best  fattening  feeds 
and  the  same  mash  as  previously  mentioned,  except  that 
the  meat  scrap  should  be  omitted,  can  be  used  mixed  with 
milk  instead  of  water.  When  milk  is  used  no  green  feed 
need  be  fed.  The  best  results  in  fattening  are  secured 
where  milk  is  used.  Other  good  fattening  feeds  are, 
rolled  oats  and  low  grade  flour  or  red  dog  middlings, 
either  of  which  may  be  used  in  place  of  the  middlings  in 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

this  ration.  The  mash  should  be  fed  twice  daily,  giving 
it  in  the  morning  and  afternoon,  and  in  addition,  a  light 
feed  of  cracked  corn  should  be  given  late  in  the  afternoon. 
Mix  the  mash  to  a  crumbly  consistency  and  keep  fresh 
water  and  grit  before  the  chickens  all  of  the  time. 

These  rations  are  adapted  for  either  small  or  large 
chickens,  the  length  of  the  fattening  period  being  adapted 
to  the  age  and  size  of  the  birds.  Broilers  may  be  con- 
fined to  a  pen  and  fattened  profitably  for  from  12  to  18 
days  but  it  rarely  pays  to  fatten  roasters  longer  than 
from  10  to  14  days.  Hens  should  only  be  fattened  for 
from  4  to  8  days.  Whenever  the  birds  show  signs  of 
going  off  their  feed  and  do  not  gain  in  weight  they  should 
be  marketed  at  once.  A  good  mash  for  fattening  hens 
is  made  of  one  part  bran,  2  parts  ground  oats  and  4  parts 
corn  meal  by  weight.  This  should  be  fed  either  with 
milk  or  with  green  feed  but  it  is  not  essential  to  use  meat 
scrap  for  fattening  hens  if  they  are  only  fed  for  a  few 
days. 

Capons  and  roasters  termed  "soft7'  roasters  are  grown 
and  fattened  in  colony  houses  on  free  range  as  they  have 
a  long  growing  period.  "Soft'5  roasters  are  a  distinct 
product  for  which  a  special  market  has  been  built  up 
especially  around  Boston  and  Philadelphia.  Chickens  of 
the  larger  breeds  are  hatched  for  this  purpose  in  the  fall 
and  winter.  They  are  caponized  and  then  grown  and 
fattened  to  be  sold  late  in  the  following  winter  or  early 
in  the  spring  when  they  will  weigh  from  5  to  9  pounds. 
Birds  for  "soft"  roasters  are  given  free  access  during 

164 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 


FIG,  14,   PLAN  OF  A  FATTENING  BATTERY 


165 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

their  growing  period  to  cracked  corn  and  meat  scrap 
which  is  kept  in  separate  hoppers  before  them  all  of  the 
time.  It  is  very  essential  that  a  good  grass  range  be  pro- 
vided for  chickens  so  fed  because  of  their  long  growing 
and  fattening  period.  This  business  has  not  been  profit- 
able since  1913  when  grain  became  so  high-priced. 

CRATE  FATTENING 

Crate  fattening  is  a  method  of  feeding  used  entirely 
in  fattening  stations  in  which  from  6  to  10  chickens  are 
confined  together  in  each  compartment  of  a  crate.  These 
crates  are  arranged  in  tiers  for  convenience  in  feeding 
and  cleaning  and  by  such  an  arrangement  a  large  number 
of  chickens  can  be  fattened  in  one  room  or  building. 
This  industry  has  grown  to  large  proportions  in  the  Cen- 
tral West  and  is  gradually  spreading  farther  South  in 
that  territory  as  well  as  being  carried  on  to  some  extent  in 
the  southeastern  part  of  this  country.  The  chickens  pro- 
duced on  the  general  farms  in  these  sections  are  usually 
underfed  and  when  sold  to  the  fattening  stations  are 
in  a  thin  condition  which  makes  it  comparatively  easy  as 
well  as  quite  profitable  to  increase  their  weight  and  to  put 
them  in  better  shape  for  market. 

The  object  of  confining  the  chickens  to  crates  is  not 
only  to  make  their  flesh  soft  and  tender  by  keeping  the 
birds  from  exercising  but  also  to  increase  their  weight 
materially.  Birds  so  fed  are  called  milk- fed  chickens,  as 
milk  is  the  basis  of  all  the  rations  used  in  this  commercial 
crate  fattening.  The  distinguishing  character  of  such 

1 66 


FIG.  9.     MILK  FATTENING  OF  CHICKENS. 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

chickens  in  addition  to  being  well  fleshed,  is  a  thorough 
bleaching  of  the  skin  caused  by  feeding  milk. 

Chickens  are  used  for  commercial  fattening  after  they 
weigh  from  i  to  il/2  pounds  and  are  then  fed  the  fatten- 
ing rations  for  from  6  to  17  days.  The  smaller  sizes  are 
fed  for  a  longer  time  than  the  larger-sized  chickens. 
Hens  are  only  fed  under  those  conditions  for  a  short 
period,  usually  from  4  to  8  days  while  only  a  very  small 
proportion  of  the  hens  marketed  through  the  fattening 
stations  are  fattened  at  all.  Chickens  are  usually  fat- 
tened up  to  about  Christmas  time  although  the  number 
fattened  after  November  i  is  comparatively  small. 
Chickens  available  for  fattening  after  the  first  of  the 
year  are  too  large  in  size  to  make  good  gains  while  their 
flesh  has  already  started  to  become  hard.  Some  of  the 
fattening  stations  have  a  feeding  capacity  of  over  50,000 
chickens  at  one  time  and  will  fatten  200,000  or  more 
chickens  during  the  season. 

The  average  gain  in  weight  in  this  feeding  is  directly 
in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  chickens.  In  experiments 
conducted  at  one  of  the  large  fattening  stations  in  the 
state  of  Kansas  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
broilers  weighing  1.60  pounds  gained  34.9  per  cent  and 
consumed  3.69  pounds  of  grain  in  addition  to  milk  in  pro- 
ducing a  pound  of  grain  while  larger  chickens  averaging 
3.05  pounds  in  weight  gained  only  14  per  cent  and  con- 
sumed 5.5  pounds  of  grain  while  making  a  pound  of  gain. 
As  the  broilers  make  the  best  gains  they  are  fed  longer 
than  roasters  which  partly  accounts  for  this  great  differ- 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

ence  in  percentage  of  gains,  but  even  when  broilers  and 
roasters  are  fed  for  the  same  length  of  time  the  gains  with 
the  broilers  are  much  greater  than  with  the  roasters. 

FATTENING   HENS 

Thin  hens  or  those  which  are  covered  with  small  pin 
feathers  are  sometimes  fed  at  many  fattening  stations 
primarily  to  get  them  in  better  market  condition  rather 
than  to  make  any  great  gains  in  their  weight.  Gains  se- 
cured from  hens  are  much  smaller  than  from  chickens 
so  that  it  only  pays  to  fatten  hens  for  a  few  days.  In 
commercial  fattening  stations  the  fattening  period  is 
usually  from  3  to  8  days,  but  only  a  small  per  cent  of  the 
hens  marketed  through  these  stations  are  fattened  at  all. 

FATTENING   RATIONS 

Buttermilk  and  skim  milk  form  the  basis  of  all  com- 
mercial fattening  rations  and  are  usually  fed  in  a  sour 
condition  although  no  special  attention  is  paid  to  see 
whether  the  milk  is  sour  or  sweet.  Semi-solid,  con- 
densed and  dried  buttermilk  are  also  used  quite  extensive- 
ly where  the  fresh  buttermilk  is  not  available  and  these 
products  are  giving  very  good  satisfaction.  In  feeding 
both  the  dried  and  the  semi-solid  or  condensed  butter- 
milk it  is  possible  to  produce  a  better  bleach  on  the 
chickens  by  feeding  a  larger  percentage  of  milk  in  the 
ration,  which  is  done  by  only  partly  diluting  the  semi- 
solid  products  back  to  their  original  consistency.  In- 
stead of  adding  6  or  7  parts  of  water  to  the  semi-solid 

168 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

product  only  3  or  4  parts  are  added  in  many  instances 
which  gives  a  much  richer  and  thicker  milk  than  ordinary 
buttermilk. 

A  good  fattening  ration  may  be  made  of  60  per  cent 
white  corn  meal,  37  per  cent  low  grade  flour  and  3  per 
cent  bran.  Another  very  good  ration  is  made  of  50  per 
cent  rolled  oats  or  oat  groats,  42  per  cent  white  corn 
meal,  5  per  cent  low  grade  flour  and  3  per  cent  bran. 

From  5  per  cent  to  6  per  cent  of  beef  tallow  may  be 
used  in  fattening  and  was  used  a  number  of  years  ago  in 
many  of  the  fattening  stations,  but  the  present  opinion  is 
that  the  addition  of  tallow  is  inadvisable  as  it  is  likely  to 
produce  a  softer  flesh  which  is  not  of  the  highest  quality. 
Where  beef  tallow  is  fed  it  is  only  used  in  any  considerable 
amount  during  the  last  few  days  of  the  fattening  period 
as  its  use  at  that  time  does  make  the  fat  become  more 
noticeable  on  the  chicken.  The  buttermilk  used  in  fat- 
tening hens  which  are  held  for  only  a  few  days  results  in 
a  marked  growth  in  their  pin  feathers  and  those  which 
have  short  stubby  pin  feathers  change  so  that  the  pin 
feathers  may  be  readily  pulled  out  when  the  fowl  is 
dressed,  giving  it  a  much  better  market  appearance. 

FEATHER   PICKING 

One  of  the  vices  which  is  quite  troublesome  in  fatten- 
ing stations  is  feather  picking.  It  is  especially  noticeable 
where  the  chickens  are  making  big  gains  and  are  in  par- 
ticularly good  flesh.  It  seems  to  be  influenced  by  the 
heating  effect  of  the  forcing  ration,  by  the  confinement, 

169 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

and  by  the  lack  of  something  to  do.  In  some  cases  it  is 
probably  brought  about  by  allowing  the  birds  to  become 
too  hungry  due  to  irregularity  in  the  time  of  feeding.  If 
this  vice  becomes  widespread  it  is  difficult  to  stop  and  may 
result  in  big  losses  in  a  fattening  station.  A  chicken 
which  is  being  picked,  if  not  removed  from  the  crate, 
will  stand  still  and  allow  the  other  chickens  to  pick  it  to 
pieces.  The  chickens  which  are  picked  should  be  removed 
from  the  crates  just  as  soon  as  noticed,  and  if  only  slight- 
ly picked  may  be  dressed  for  market  but  make  an  unde- 
sirable grade  of  dressed  poultry.  No  absolute  remedy  for 
this  vice  has  been  found  but  the  use  of  rations  containing 
a  large  proportion  of  milk  and  the  use  of  care  to  see  that 
the  chickens  always  have  plenty  of  feed  have  been  found 
beneficial.  The  addition  of  about  4  pounds  of  salt  to  the 
feed  or  10,000  chickens  may  be  of  some  help  in  preventing 
feather  and  flesh  picking. 

Grit  is  not  usually  fed  in  fattening  chickens  commer- 
cially as  sufficient  grit  is  available  to  carry  the  chickens 
through  the  short  fattening  period.  If  the  birds  show 
any  tendency  to  go  off  feed  it  is  advisable  to  materially 
cut  down  their  feed  and  to  furnish  them  with  some  grit. 

LENGTH  OF  FATTENING   PERIOD 

Chickens  are  usually  fattened  from  6  to  17  days  under 
commercial  conditions,  the  length  of  time  depending  on 
the  size  and  price  of  the  chickens  and  on  the  weather. 
Early  in  the  season  the  small  chickens  are  fattened  for 
the  longest  periods,  usually  from  13  to  17  days,  and  they 

170 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

make  a  material  growth  during  these  periods  as  well  as 
put  on  flesh.  The  greatest  percentage  and  the  cheapest 
gains  are  made  on  the  small  chickens.  It  takes  about  4 
pounds  of  dry  feed  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain  on  chickens 
weighing  il/2  pounds  to  2  pounds  while  5  to  6  pounds  of 
feed  is  required  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain  on  chickens 
weighing  3  pounds  or  more. 

Slightly  higher  prices  are  paid  for  broilers  than  for 
larger  chickens  but  when  the  former  are  fattened  and 
dressed  for  market  they  bring  a  very  much  higher  price 
than  the  larger  chickens.  The  greatest  gains  are  made 
in  the  early  stages  of  fattening,  the  gains  usually  de- 
creasing toward  the  end  of  the  fattening  period,  depend- 
ing on  the  size  of  the  bird  and  on  the  weather.  In  experi- 
ments conducted  in  some  of  these  fattening  stations, 
broilers  cost  17.6  cents  per  pound  in  July,  1911,  while 
the  gains,  including  labor,  cost  7  cents  per  pound.  In 
November  of  that  year  in  the  same  stations  the  larger- 
sized  chickens  cost  9  cents  per  pound  into  the  fattening 
station  while  the  gains  including  labor  cost  10.5  cents  per 
pound.  In  other  words,  a  pound  of  gain  was  put  on  the 
broilers  at  less  than  half  the  original  purchase  price  while 
in  the  larger-sized  chickens,  the  purchase  price  was  about 
the  same  and  in  many  cases  less  than  the  cost  of  gain  in 
fattening.  The  dressed  broilers  also  bring  a  much  higher 
price  per  pound. 

The  common  practice  is  to  feed  all  the  broilers  and  the 
small  chickens  secured  early  in  the  season  for  about  14 
days.  Around  the  latter  part  of  August  the  period  is 

171 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

dropped  to  n  to  14  days  and  by  the  middle  of  September 
the  chickens  are  often  divided  into  two  lots,  broilers  and 
roasters,  the  former  being  fed  12  to  14  days  and  the 
latter  6  to  10  days.  The  question  of  length  of  time  of 
fattening  depends  materially  on  help  conditions  especially 
in  the  dressing  room,  and  also  on  the  supply  of  chickens 
on  hand.  It  is  always  necessary  to  adjust  the  length  of 
period  to  these  two  factors  in  order  to  handle  the  fatten- 
ing station  successfully.  The  market  for  which  the 
chickens  are  being  produced  also  affects  the  best  length 
of  time  to  fatten  the  chickens. 

The  weather  and  environment  materially  affect  fatten- 
ing. During  hot  summer  weather  the  chickens  are  some- 
times very  adversely  affected  by  the  extreme  heat,  making 
them  lose  their  appetite  and  in  some  cases  causing  large 
mortality.  Placing  20,000  chickens  in  one  room  produces 
a  large  amount  of  body  heat  making  it  difficult  to  keep 
the  room  comfortable  in  hot  weather.  The  most  success- 
ful fattening  stations  have  their  sides  made  up  entirely 
or  largely  of  glass  or  wooden  shutters  which  can  be 
opened  to  secure  the  best  possible  ventilation.  In  the 
early  fall  the  broilers  or  small  chickens  consist  largely 
of  late  hatched  or  poorly  developed  chickens  and  while 
the  weather  conditions  are  better  for  fattening,  the  gains 
secured  are  usually  less  than  earlier  in  the  fattening  sea- 
son, on  account  of  the  quality  of  the  stock. 

Late  in  the  fall  the  chickens  are  more  or  less  affected 
by  cold  and  wet  weather  which  is  apt  to  develop  colds 
and  roup  or  sickness  among  all  of  the  poultry.  The 

172 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

problem  m  the  fattening  stations  in  the  fall  and  early 
winter  is  to  keep  the  chickens  comfortable  and  still 
supply  plenty  of  fresh  air  and  ventilation.  The  object 
in  the  management  of  the  chickens  is  to  keep  them  con- 
tented at  all  times. 

In  the  early  history  of  fattening  stations  in  this  country, 
the  chickens  were  kept  quiet  by  having  them  in  a  dark 
room  but  this  lack  of  light  and  sunshine  tended  towards 
poor  sanitary  conditions  and  poor  ventilation,  and  the 
best  results  are  now  being  secured  where  an  abundant 
supply  of  ventilation  is  provided  which  also  necessarily 
produces  a  well-lighted  room. 

CRAMMING  POULTRY 

Fattening  chickens  on  a  cramming  machine  is  a 
method  of  feeding  used  extensively  in  England  but 
which  has  not  generally  given  satisfactory  results  in  this 
country,  although  it  has  been  tried  under  many  different 
conditions.  It  produces  a  better  fattened  chicken  than 
any  of  the  other  methods  but  requires  far  more  labor 
and  greater  skill  in  handling  the  chickens.  It  is  difficult 
to  secure  labor  which  will  use  a  cramming  machine  with 
success,  while  the  public  in  the  United  States  is  not  usually 
willing  to  pay  the  price  which  one  must  receive  fof 
poultry  fed  in  this  way,  on  account  of  the  high  labor 
cost. 

Cramming  machines  are  successfully  used  only  by  some 
small  producers  who  sell  extra  quality  well-fleshed 
poultry  direct  to  the  consumers.  In  cramming,  the  birds 

173 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

are  fed  from  7  to  14  days  from  the  troughs  as  in  crate 
fattening,  and  are  then  crammed  twice  daily  from  7  to 
10  days  until  they  begin  to  go  off  feed,  when  they  are 
marketed.  The  operator  gauges  the  proper  amount  of 
feed  to  force  into  the  chicken  by  holding  his  hand  on  its 
crop.  If  the  crop  is  not  almost  or  entirely  empty  at  the 
next  feeding  time  the  bird  is  not  given  any  additional 
feed.  The  rations  with  milk  advised  for  crate  fattening 
can  be  used  to  good  advantage  in  cramming,  but  the 
feed  should  be  made  thinner  for  the  latter  purpose,  mix- 
ing it  to  the  consistency  of  cream. 

BEST  TIME  TO  MARKET   POULTRY 

It  usually  pays  the  poultry  keeper  best  to  sell  his 
poultry  as  soon  as  it  is  in  shape  for  market.  Leghorns 
are  usually  sold  most  profitably  as  small  broilers  weigh- 
ing from  one  to  two  pounds.  The  early  broilers  from 
any  of  the  breeds  bring  the  highest  prices  while  later  in 
the  season  it  may  pay  to  keep  the  chickens  for  roasters 
if  one  has  sufficient  room  and  a  good  range.  The  pro- 
duction of  broilers  and  roasters  is  as  a  rule  a  side  issue 
to  the  raising  of  pullets;  therefore  the  prime  object 
should  be  to  give  the  pullets  the  best  possible  growing 
conditions,  which  usually  makes  it  necessary  to  sell  the 
cockerels  as  broilers. 

On  general  farms  or  poultry  farms  where  a  large 
amount  of  good  range  is  available  and  where  there  is 
possibility  of  picking  up  a  considerable  amount  of  waste 
food,  it  may  and  often  does  pay  to  keep  chickens  up  to 

174 


u 


B 

in 


I 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

the  roasting  stage.  The  later  hatched  chickens  may  often 
be  kept  and  caponized  where  one  has  good  range  condi- 
tions for  raising  capons.  The  price  paid  for  chickens  is 
usually  much  higher  in  the  early  summer  than  in  the 
fall,  the  lowest  point  usually  coming  about  October  or 
November.  The  following  shows  the  average  monthly 
price  for  chickens  for  one  year  in  the  New  York  market 
beginning  with  January,  1919:  27.5  cents  per  pound; 
29.4 ,'29.5;  87.0;  (broilers)  60. 1 ;  50.3;  42.9;  36.4;  31.4; 
26.1;  25. 3;  27. 7. 

Hens  are  usually  marketed  to  best  advantage  at  the 
end  of  their  second  laying  season  although  the  best  Leg- 
horn hens  in  the  flock  may  often  be  kept  to  advantage 
until  the  end  of  their  third  laying  period.  Many  of  the 
hens  can  be  marketed  to  advantage  at  the  end  of  their 
first  laying  season,  the  culls  and  poor  producers  being 
removed  at  that  time.  As  a  rule  the  hens  which  moult 
earliest  in  the  summer  are  the  poorest  producers  and  a 
considerable  percentage  of  them  can  be  sold  at  the  end  of 
their  first  laying  year. 

The  hens  of  the  general  purpose  breeds  rarely  pro- 
duce profitably  after  their  second  laying  season  and  a 
larger  proportion  of  them  can  be  marketed  to  advantage 
at  the  end  of  their  first  laying  season  than  with  Leg^ 
horns.  Some  farmers  sell  their  hens  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  winter  or  the  very  early  part  of  spring  when 
the  prices  for  fowls  are  at  the  highest  point  but  hens 
which  have  been  kept  until  that  time  should  be  kept 
through  their  laying  season  as  they  will  produce  suffi- 

175 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

cient  eggs  in  the  spring  to  make  them  very  profitable  at 
that  time.  The  market  price  per  pound  received  for  hens 
in  the  early  summer  is  only  a  few  cents  lower  than  that 
paid  early  in  the  spring,  so  that  the  hens  will  return  a 
good  profit  by  being  kept  until  June,  July  or  August,  de- 
pending upon  the  condition  of  the  stock  and  on  the  sec- 
tion of  the  country. 

SELLING   HENS  ALIVE 

The  market  for  live  hens  in  many  large  cities  has 
been  so  good  in  recent  years  that  it  is  often  more  profit- 
able to  sell  hens  alive  than  to  dress  them  for  market. 
The  question  of  which  is  the  more  profitable  method  de- 
pends therefore  upon  market  conditions  and  what  facili- 
ties and  labor  are  available  for  dressing  the  fowl.  The 
best  market  periods  for  live  poultry  in  New  York  City, 
which  is  one  of  the  very  best  markets  for  this  product, 
are  during  the  Jewish  holidays.  The  Jewish  trade  takes 
a  large  part  of  the  live  hens  marketed  and  this  demand 
is  what  makes  the  live  poultry  market  of  New  York 
City  so  good.  The  dates  of  the  Jewish  holidays  vary  each 
year,  being  as  follows  from  October,  1921,  to  June,  1922  : 
October  3  to  4,  October  12,  October  17  to  18,  October 
24  to  25,  March  4,  April  13  to  14,  April  19  to  20,  and 
June  2  to  3. 

In  catering  to  a  market  of  this  kind  for  live  poultry 
the  produce  must  be  shipped  so  that  it  will  reach  the 
market  from  3  to  6  days  previous  to  the  holidays  in 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

order  to  bring  the  highest  prices.  During  the  year  1920 
the  wholesale  prices  for  live  hens  on  the  New  York 
market  had  an  average  price  in  cents  for  each  month  as 
follows:  January,  39.1;  February,  41.4;  March,  42.9; 
April,  46.6;  May,  38.3;  June,  36.4;  July,  36.6;  August, 
36.4;  September,  39.4;  October,  31.2;  November,  29.2; 
December,  29.7. 

While  these  figures  represent  the  averages  for  the 
months,  showing  the  times  of  the  year  when  live  poultry 
brings  the  highest  prices,  there  is  considerable  variation 
in  prices  throughout  the  month,  especially  during  the 
period  of  Jewish  holidays.  For  instance,  on  October  i, 
1920,  fowls  were  quoted  at  40  to  44  cents  which  was 
during  the  Jewish  holidays,  but  dropped  to  32  and  35 
cents  for  October  6  and  to  21  and  29  cents  on 
October  19.  The  prices  gradually  came  up  from  that 
period  to  35  and  37  cents  on  October  30,  making 
the  top  quotations  vary  during  the  month  from  29  to 
44  cents. 

The  wholesale  prices  for  dressed  poultry  on  the  New 
York  market  were  about  the  same  as  for  live  poultry 
during  the  year  1920.  The  average  prices  for  each 
month  in  cents  beginning  January,  1920,  being  as  fol- 
lows: January,  31.9;  February,  35;  March,  34.5;  April, 
37.2;  May,  37.3;  June,  36.2;  July,  35.1;  August,  34.5; 
September,  34.5;  October,  33,;  November,  32.7,  and  De- 
cember, 30.2.  During  that  year  the  prices  for  live  hens 
were  several  cents  higher  during  certain  seasons  of  the 
year  than  the  prices  of  dressed  hens. 

177 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

SHRINKAGE  IN  DRESSING  POULTRY 

There  is  considerable  shrinkage  in  dressing  poultry 
which  must  be  considered  in  comparing  the  profits  of 
live  and  dressed  fowls.  The  shrinkage  in  hens,  where 
the  birds  are  merely  killed  and  picked  is  about  13  per 
cent  and  the  same  shrinkage  is  found  in  chickens ;  broilers 
averaging  14.3  per  cent  and  roasters  14.7  per  cent.  If 
the  hens  or  chickens  are  drawn  as  well  as  killed  and 
picked,  removing  only  the  body  contents  the  shrinkage 
will  be  about  21  per  cent,  increasing  to  28  per  cent  if  the 
head  and  feet  are  removed.  Dressed  poultry,  except  for 
home  sale,  is  sold  undrawn  as  it  keeps  better  undrawn 
than  after  it  has  been  drawn.  Dressed  poultry  is  always 
put  into  cold  storage  undrawn  on  account  of  its  better 
keeping  qualities  in  that  condition.  Experiments  on  the 
keeping  qualities  of  dressed  and  undrawn  poultry  con- 
ducted by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  gave  re- 
sults considerably  in  favor  of  the  common  practice  of 
putting  dressed  poultry  into  storage  without  drawing  it. 

Many  poultrymen  are  able  to  sell  in  the  summer  and 
early  fall  the  best  of  their  surplus  yearling  and  two- 
year-old  hens  to  other  poultry  keepers  who  desire  these 
hens  for  breeding  stock.  Hens  sold  in  this  way  bring  a 
considerably  higher  price  than  they  would  be  sold  at  as 
live  or  dressed  fowls  on  the  market.  Pullets  will  give  a 
greater  return  over  feed  cost  than  yearling  or  older  hens, 
therefore  the  poultryman  culls  out  the  number  of  hens 
needed  to  make  room  for  his  pullets. 

In  experiments  conducted  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

Agriculture,  Leghorn  pullets  gave  an  average  return  over 
feed  costs  of  $2.72  for  the  first  year;  $2.18  for  the  second 
year;  and  $1.94  in  their  third  year. 

The  value  of  eggs  over  feed  costs  in  the  general  pur- 
pose breeds  is  much  less  in  the  older  hens  than  for  the 
Leghorns.  The  value  of  eggs  over  feed  costs  for  the 
first  year  being  $2.86;  for  the  second  year,  $1.25;  and 
for  the  third  year,  $0.39.  The  common  practice  on  com- 
mercial Leghorn  farms  is  to  replace  from  one-third  to 
one-half  of  the  hens  with  pullets  each  year.  The  tendency 
in  recent  years  is  to  have  a  larger  per  cent  of  pullets  in 
the  flock  and  some  poultry  farms  only  keep  pullets  for 
egg  production. 

Yearlings  and  older  hens  make  better  breeders  than 
pullets  and  the  best  of  the  hens  should  always  be  saved 
for  that  purpose  at  least.  The  cost  of  raising  the  pullets 
and  the  price  secured  for  the  stock  which  is  sold  must 
also  be  considered.  If  sold  for  market,  hens  usually  bring 
the  same  price  per  pound  regardless  of  their  age  and  will 
therefore  bring  just  as  much  per  pound  when  two  or 
three  years  old  as  at  the  end  of  their  pullet  year.  Yearling 
hens  sold  as  breeders  are  in  much  better  demand  and  will 
bring  considerably  more  money,  than  older  hens. 

The  best  of  the  general  purpose  hens,  while  not  nearly 
as  profitable  producers  as  Leghorns  in  their  second  and 
third  years,  should  be  kept  for  breeders  and  only  a  few 
of  the  older  hens  kept  for  market  eggs.  It  would  ordi- 
narily be  a  better  policy  to  keep  a  larger  per  cent  of 
pullets  in  a  flock  of  general  purpose  birds  than  in  a  flock 

179 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

of  Leghorns  on  account  of  the  comparative  production  in 
these  two  types  of  fowls  as  they  get  older.  The  best  pro- 
portion of  pullets  to  keep  is  also  influenced  by  the  same 
factors  which  are  discussed  under  the  Leghorns. 

FEEDING  AND  SHIPPING  LIVE  POULTRY 

Poultry  is  .shipped  extensively  in  cars  built  expressly  for 
this  purpose  and  this  trade  has  developed  into  a  big 
business.  These  cars  of  live  hens  and  chickens  are  col- 
lected in  the  great  poultry  producing  states  of  the  Central 
West  and  in  the  South  and  shipped  to  the  large  Eastern 
cities.  A  similar  trade  of  the  same  kind  is  conducted 
between  the  Central  West  and  the  Pacific  Coast.  These 
cars  of  live  poultry  are  from  two  to  seven  days  en  route 
and  are  accompanied  by  an  attendant  who  travels  with 
the  car  to  see  that  the  birds  are  given  the  best  of  care. 
The  object  is  to  get  the  birds  to  market  with  as  little 
shrinkage  as  possible  and  in  some  instances  slight  gains 
are  secured.  Under  good  conditions,  the  shrinkage  rare- 
ly exceeds  5  per  cent,  but  this  shrinkage  is  greatly  affected 
by  weather  conditions  in  addition  to  the  care  given  by 
the  attendant. 

These  cars  are  usually  divided  into  eight  tiers,  each 
tier  divided  into  sixteen  coops,  allowing  36  fowls  to  each 
coop,  a  live  poultry  car  will  accommodate  about  forty- 
six  hundred  head,  or  about  eighteen  thousand  pounds  of 
poultry.  With  slight  alterations,  similar  trains  are  used 
for  geese  and  turkeys,  holding  from  two  thousand  to 

180 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

twenty- four  hundred  geese  or  from  twelve  to  fifteen  hun- 
dred turkeys. 

The  car  is  arranged  to  carry  a  supply  of  water  and 
feed,  all  compartments  having  feed  and  water  troughs 
accessible  throughout  the  car.  The  feed  may  be  mixed 
with  water,  but  better  results  are  secured  if  milk  is  used 
in  mixing  the  feed,  which  can  be  done  by  using  the  semi- 
solid  milk  product  and  diluting  it  with  water  in  the  prep- 
aration of  the  feed.  Dried  buttermilk  should  be  used  in 
the  mash  if  liquid  buttermilk  is  not  available.  The  same 
rations  used  in  milk  fattening  for  either  hens  or  for 
chicks  may  be  used  with  excellent  results  in  feeding  live 
poultry.  Rations  of  some  less  expensive  feeds  may  also 
be  used,  especially  with  hens,  which  can  be  fed  on  a  mix- 
ture of  corn  meal  or  ground  chop  containing  from  10  to 
20  per  cent  of  shorts,  mixed  with  buttermilk. 


181 


CHAPTER  XII 

MANAGEMENT  OF  LAYING  STOCK 

Value  of  Early  Hatching.  The  value  of  early  hatch- 
ing for  producing  good  pullets  and  especially  for  get- 
tings  eggs  in  the  fall  and  early  winter  cannot  be  over- 
emphasized. Unless  one  gets  pullets  out  in  good  season 
it  is  practically  impossible  to  get  fall  eggs  from  the  pullets 
regardless  of  how  well  they  are  fed  and  handled  during 
the  growing  season.  Chickens  which  have  been  hatched 
early  will  grow  much  more  rapidly  and  do  better  than 
chickens  hatched  late  in  the  spring. 

Pullets  which  have  been  hatched  early  should  be  ready 
to  put  in  their  winter  quarters  in  September  or  October 
and  should  be  moved  to  their  laying  quarters,  if  these 
quarters  are  different  from  the  place  in  which  they  are 
raised,  at  least  2  or  3  weeks  before  they  are  ready  to  lay. 
All  of  them  should  be  settled  and  used  to  their  winter 
quarters  before  the  weather  gets  cold.  Be  sure  that  the 
pullets  are  marked  in  some  way  so  that  if  they  mix  with 
the  hens  their  age  can  be  told  whenever  the  pen  is  to  be 
culled  for  market. 

EXERCISE 

Exercise  is  very  essential  especially  for  hens  kept  con- 
fined to  the  poultry  house  during  the  winter.  This  is 

182 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

most  readily  secured  by  feeding  the  scratch  mixture  in  a 
litter  on  the  poultry  house,  having  a  litter  of  straw  2  to  4 
inches  deep.  Straw  makes  the  best  litter  but  other  ma- 
terial may  be  used  if  more  available  or  cheaper.  Saw- 
dust makes  a  fairly  good  litter.  Cotton  hulls  are  used 
somewhat  in  the  South  for  this  purpose  and  fine  white 
sand  which  is  free  from  dust  is  used  in  some  sections. 
Leaves  make  a  good  litter  for  a  short  time  but  break  up 
very  quickly  and  soon  become  very  dusty.  New  litter 
should  be  added  whenever  necessary  to  keep  up  the  re- 
quired amount,  and  the  litter  should  be  changed  when- 
ever it  becomes  badly  soiled  and  gets  wet. 

Poultry  houses  with  dropping  boards  which  are  prop- 
erly cared  for,  do  not  usually  need  to  have  the  litter  en- 
tirely changed  more  than  2  or  3  times  a  year.  By  feed- 
ing the  scratch  mixture  in  the  litter  the  hens  are  always 
kept  busy  by  scratching  for  their  feed.  Plenty  of  litter 
on  the  floor  of  the  poultry  house  is  very  essential  where 
the  hens  are  confined  to  the  house  during  the  winter 
months.  The  need  and  value  of  litter  on  the  floor  of  the 
poultry  house  is  not  so  great  where  the  hens  have  a  good 
range  or  large  yards  in  which  they  are  allowed  to  exercise 
and  work. 

In  addition  to  the  feed  it  is  very  important  that  a 
constant  supply  of  fresh  cool  water  be  supplied  to  the 
fowls.  As  an  egg  is  about  65  per  cent  water  the  necessity 
for  plenty  of  fresh  water  in  the  production  of  eggs  is 
readily  apparent.  During  the  summer  the  water  should 
be  placed  in  the  shade  or  at  some  point  where  it  will  keep 

183 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

as  cool  as  possible  and  should  be  changed  at  least  twice 
a  day.  In  the  winter  arrangements  must  be  made  to  keep 
the  water  from  freezing  in  cold  climates  or  else  to  pro- 
vide fresh  water  at  least  twice  a  day  in  case  the  water 
freezes  in  the  houses.  Where  hens  are  confined  in  large 
poultry  houses  during  the  winter  it  is  especially  essential 
that  all  conditions  in  the  house  be  made  as  near  ideal  as 
possible. 

A  considerable  number  of  commercial  poultry  farmers 
keep  their  hens  confined  in  the  houses  after  they  are  put 
into  these  laying  quarters  in  the  fall  and  do  not  allow 
them  to  go  outside  until  the  weather  becomes  settled  the 
following  spring,  the  exact  dates  depending  on  the 
weather  conditions  and  on  the  section  of  the  country.  It 
is  thought  that  more  eggs  are  secured  by  keeping  the  hens 
confined  where  they  are  less  subject  to  the  sudden  changes 
in  temperature  and  to  adverse  weather  conditions  than  if 
the  hens  are  allowed  to  go  out  of  the  house  throughout 
the  winter  season.  Many  breeders  who  are  especially 
desirous  of  getting  fertile  eggs,  and  especially  breeders 
who  keep  other  breeds  of  fowls  than  Leghorns,  prefer  to 
allow  their  hens  to  go  out  of  the  houses  every  day  regard- 
less of  the  weather  as  it  tends  to  keep  the  hens  in  better 
breeding  condition  and  to  insure  a  larger  percentage  of 
fertile  eggs  in  the  spring. 

USE  OF  ARTIFICIAL   LIGHTS 

During  recent  years  artificial  lighting  systems  for 
poultry  houses  have  been  used  with  considerable  success 

184 


I 


N 

I 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

so  that  the  practice  is  now  quite  general  in  a  few  sections 
of  this  country,  especially  in  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Oregon  and  California.  The  object  is  to  provide  a  normal 
length  of  day  throughout  the  winter  season,  usually  about 
a  fourteen-hour  day,  so  that  the  fowls  are  able  to  eat  and 
assimilate  a  much  larger  amount  of  feed  than  they  can 
get  in  the  average  short  winter  day.  It  does  not  pay  to 
use  artificial  lights  unless  fowls  are  properly  housed  and 
otherwise  well  cared  for. 

The  method  used  apparently  at  the  present  time  with 
most  success  is  to  provide  lights  early  in  the  morning  at 
such  a  time  that  it  will  give  the  hens  14  hours  of  daylight, 
which  means  putting  the  lights  on  about  4  a.  m.  and 
leaving  them  on  until  morning,  using  the  lights  from 
about  November  I  to  April  I,  depending  upon  the  section 
of  the  country.  Lights  may  be  used  both  in  the  morning 
and  at  night,  still  limiting  the  day  to  14  hours.  Where 
artificial  lights  are  used  the  fowls  will  lay  a  much  larger 
percentage  of  their  eggs  in  the  fall  and  winter  but  do 
not  lay  a  much  larger  number  of  eggs  for  the  entire  year 
than  where  no  lights  are  used,  as  their  spring  production 
is  usually  lower  than  that  from  hens  kept  under  normal 
conditions.  Fowls  so  handled  must  be  given  extra  feed 
and  are  usually  fed  about  four  times  a  day,  at  8  in  the 
morning,  at  noon  and  just  before  dark,  giving  them 
plenty  of  feed  at  this  last  feeding  time.  Unless  sufficient 
grain  is  left  over  for  the  early  morning  feed,  additional 
grain  is  scattered  in  the  litter  after  the  hens  go  to  roost. 
In  addition  to  the  extra  feeding,  water  must  be  provided 

185 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

so  that  the  hens  will  have  it  as  soon  as  they  come  off  the 
roost  which  means  that  in  the  winter  arrangements  must 
be  made  to  keep  the  water  from  freezing  so  that  it  can  be 
left  in  the  poultry  house  over  night.  Also  provide  plenty 
of  green  feed  for  fowls  so  handled. 

KIND  OF  LIGHTS  TO  USE 

The  electric  lights  are  the  most  practical  source  of 
artificial  light  for  this  purpose  on  account  of  their 
adaptability  for  use  automatically  as  they  can  be  set  so 
that  an  ordinary  alarm  clock  will  throw  the  switch  on 
for  the  lights  at  any  time  desired  without  the  attention 
of  an  operator.  In  a  pen  20  feet  by  20  feet  the  use  of 
two  40- watt  lights  will  give  the  desired  amount  of  light. 

Another  system  tried  in  experimental  work  which 
seems  to  be  worthy  of  trial  is  to  give  the  fowls  an  extra 
feed  from  8  to  9  o'clock  in  the  evening,  allowing  them 
to  go  to  roost  at  the  normal  time  and  using  the  lights  for 
only  one  hour  each  evening.  In  the  use  of  artificial  lights 
it  is  very  essential  that  the  lights  be  discontinued  gradual- 
ly, reducing  the  time  about  ten  minutes  daily  until  normal 
daylight  is  reached,  because  if  a  sudden  change  is  made 
it  will  almost  invariably  force  the  hens  into  an  unnatural 
moult.  Fowls  on  which  the  lights  are  used  are  usually 
kept  confined  in  the  house  throughout  the  winter  period. 
It  only  pays  as  a  rule  to  use  this  system  with  pullets,  and 
pullets  or  hens  which  are  going  to  be  used  as  breeders 
should  not  be  forced  for  egg  production  for  a  long  period 
previous  to  the  hatching  season. 

186 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

Artificial  lights  are  used  with  fairly  good  success  on 
hens  kept  as  breeders  beginning  to  use  the  lights  about 
January  i  or  a  few  weeks  before  eggs  are  desired  for 
hatching.  The  cost  of  this  lighting  under  average  con- 
ditions is  quite  small  and  the  fowls  have  paid  a  very  good 
profit  on  many  different  poultry  farms  where  the  oper- 
ator has  been  reasonably  successful  in  keeping  the  fowls 
in  good  condition.  The  greatest  trouble  has  been  caused 
by  the  fowls  going  into  a  partial  moult  which  in  most 
cases  is  due  to  the  lack  of  experience  on  the  part  of  the 
operator  whereby  he  neglects  his  lighting  system  at  some 
time  or  does  not  feed  the  fowls  properly  and  makes  too 
sudden  changes  in  his  system  of  management. 

FORCING  THE  MOLT  AND  FEEDING  DURING   THE  SUMMER 

It  is  doubtful  whether  it  is  best  to  make  the  birds  molt 
earlier  than  the  normal  time  by  changes  in  the  feed  and 
the  best  practice  known  at  the  present  time  is  to  give  the 
birds  normal  rations  during  the  summer  months.  The 
condition  of  the  birds  during  the  molting  period  can  be 
materially  improved  and  the  length  of  the  molting  period 
shortened  by  giving  the  hens  plenty  of  green  feed  and  by 
feeding  milk  during  the  summer  and  early  fall.  The  ad- 
dition of  5  per  cent  of  linseed  meal  to  the  mash  is  also 
very  helpful. 

Buttermilk  or  skim  milk  make  excellent  products  for 
this  purpose  and  semi-solid  buttermilk  is  also  very  good 
if  the  fresh  products  cannot  be  secured  at  a  reasonable 
feeding  price.  In  addition  to  supplying  the  ground  feed 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

and  the  milk,  it  is  very  essential  to  get  the  fowls  to  eat  as 
much  mash  as  possible  during  the  molting  period.  This 
can  be  done  where  the  dry  mash  system  of  feeding  is 
carried  on  by  reducing  the  scatch  grains  materially,  mak- 
ing the  fowls  consume  at  least  as  much  mash  as  scratch 
grains  and  preferably  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  as 
much  more  mash  than  scratch  grains.  This  extra  con- 
sumption of  mash  during  the  summer  not  only  helps  to 
keep  up  the  summer  production  previous  to  molting,  but 
makes  the  hens  lay  later  in  the  summer  and  fall  and  also 
shortens  the  molting  period,  when  the  hens  are  normally 
non-productive.  If  green  feed  can  be  secured  in  connec- 
tion with  a  large  or  open  range,  it  is  also  very  desirable  as 
it  gives  the  fowls  exercise  in  addition  to  supplying  green 
feed. 

The  molt  can  be  forced  early  in  the  season  by  giving  the 
hens  very  light  feeds  or  a  semi-starvation  ration.  This  will 
stop  the  hens  laying  in  June  and  July  if  desired  and  throw 
them  into  a  complete  molt.  As  soon  as  the  hens  have 
started  to  molt  freely  they  are  given  full  feeds  of  a 
regular  ration  and  the  fowls  made  to  consume  as  much 
mash  as  possible.  This  can  usually  best  be  done  by  feed- 
ing a  moist  mash  in  addition  to  the  dry  mash,  if  the  dry 
mash  system  of  feeding  is  in  use. 

CULLING    AND    SELECTION    OF    STOCK 

In  order  to  get  the  most  profitable  returns  from  the 
feed  consumed  and  to  make  the  feeding  results  worth 
while,  it  is  necessary  to  cull  out  the  poor  producers.  The 

1 88 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

best  time  to  cull  the  laying  flock  is  in  August,  September, 
and  October.  In  addition  to  culling  the  entire  flock  at 
that  time,  sick  hens,  or  those  in  poor  condition  should  be 
culled  out  whenever  they  are  found  in  any  season  of  the 
year.  The  characteristics  to  observe  in  culling  are  molt- 
ing, color  of  the  shank,  the  appearance  of  the  comb,  color 
of  the  beak,  the  condition  and  spread  of  the  pelvic  bones, 
and  the  size  and  flexibility  of  the  abdomen.  The  good 
producers  lay  late  into  the  summer  and  fall  and  do  not 
molt  until  October  and  November.  The  poor  producers 
molt  earlier  in  the  season — in  July  and  August — and  will 
have  a  complete  new  coat  of  feathers  in  August  or  Sep- 
tember, while  the  plumage  of  the  best  producers  will  be 
ragged  and  rough  in  appearance  at  that  time. 

The  shanks  or  legs  of  hens  that  are  naturally  yellow 
in  color  will  be  pale  and  faded  in  August  and  September 
if  they  have  been  good  producers.  The  poor  producers 
will  have  bright  yellow  legs  at  that  time.  These  same 
color  indications  apply  to  the  beak.  The  comb  of  a  hen 
when  she  is  laying  is  plump,  and  is  bright  red  in  color, 
while  a  non-laying  hen  has  a  shrunken  comb  which  is 
pale  or  dull  in  color  and  is  usually  rather  hard.  The 
abdomen  of  a  good  producer  is  flexible  and  large,  and 
hens  of  the  smaller  breeds  such  as  Leghorns  should  have 
a  distance  of  at  least  the  width  of  four  fingers  between  the 
keel  and  pelvic  bones.  The  larger  birds  should  have  a 
spread  of  at  least  the  width  of  a  hand  between  these  bones. 
The  pelvic  bones  in  a  laying  hen  are  thin,  flexible,  and 
spread  wide  apart.  When  she  is  not  laying,  they  are 

189 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

closer  together,  they  feel  thick,  and  are  less  flexible. 
When  a  hen  is  laying,  the  distance  between  the  pelvic 
bones  should  usually  be  one  and  one-half  inches  or  more, 
while  if  she  is  not  laying  it  will  be  less  than  one  and  one- 
half  inches. 

METHODS  OF  FEEDING   HENS  AND  PULLETS 

The  common  practice  with  most  poultrymen  is  to  use 
the  same  methods  of  feeding  for  different  breeds  and 
birds  of  the  same  breed  which  are  of  different  ages.  It 
is  more  profitable,  however,  to  give  the  pullets  a  more 
highly  stimulating  ration  than  the  older  birds  and  Leg- 
horns can  be  fed  a  ration  containing  a  larger  per  cent  of 
meat  scraps  than  can  be  used  for  the  heavier  birds. 

A  mash  containing  25  per  cent  of  meat  scrap  can  be 
fed  to  advantage  to  Leghorn  pullets  while  the  meat  scrap 
can  be  reduced  to  from  1 8  to  20  per  cent  during  the  second 
and  third  years.  This  is  especially  true  of  Plymouth  Rocks 
and  if  they  have  a  tendency  to  become  overfat,  it  is 
advisable  to  feed  not  more  than  20  per  cent  meat  scrap 
to  pullets,  which  can  be  reduced  to  15  per  cent  in  their 
second  and  third  years.  It  is  very  essential  to  make  the 
older  hens  work  for  their  feed,  especially  hens  of  the 
larger  breeds,  in  order  to  keep  them  from  becoming  too 
fat  to  lay  well. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  BREEDING  STOCK  AND  MALE  BIRDS 

While  hens  for  egg  production  are  often  kept  confined 
throughout  most  of  the  year,  breeding  stock  should  be 

190 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

given  as  much  range  and  exercise  as  possible.  The  secur- 
ing of  eggs  which  are  fertile  and  which  will  produce 
strong  livable  chicks  is  more  essential  in  the  handling  of 
breeding  stock  than  is  the  actual  number  of  eggs  received 
during  the  breeding  season.  Breeding  stock  to  give  the 
best  results  needs  to  be  in  good  condition  but  not  fat  and 
preferably  slightly  thin  rather  than  overfat.  This  condi- 
tion is  secured  by  feeding  the  birds  moderately  but  not 
over- feeding;  by  making  the  birds  eat  plenty  of  mash, 
which  is  done  by  feeding  only  a  very  limited  amount  of 
scratch  grains;  by  making  the  birds  exercise  and  by 
furnishing  plenty  of  green  feed,  preferably  on  a  free  or 
large  range. 

Stock  for  breeding  should  not  be  forced  for  egg  pro- 
duction during  the  breeding  season,  but  can  be  fed  heavi- 
ly without  injurious  results  until  about  two  months  prior 
to  the  time  that  the  eggs  are  to  be  saved  for  hatching. 
Forcing  egg  production  by  the  use  of  stimulating  drugs 
should  never  be  done  with  breeding  stock  under  any  con- 
ditions and  it  is  very  doubtful  if  it  pays  to  use  such  feeds 
for  any  kind  of  poultry.  Any  forcing  method  which 
tends  to  especially  stimulate  egg  production,  such  as  the 
use  of  electric  lights,  should  be  discontinued  at  least  two 
months  previous  to  the  breeding  season.  If  the  stock 
is  given  good  breeding  conditions  two  months  before 
eggs  are  to  be  saved  for  hatching,  good  results  will 
be  secured.  The  male  birds  should  be  well  taken  care 
of  throughout  the  year  and  always  given  as  much  range 
as  possible. 

191 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

MANAGEMENT  OF  BROODY   HENS 

Broodiness  in  laying  hens  wastes  a  lot  of  valuable  lay- 
ing days  throughout  the  year,  especially  in  the  spring  and 
early  summer.  Hens  which  are  not  desired  to  use  for 
hatching  and  rearing  chicks  should  be  removed  from  the 
laying  nests  just  as  soon  as  they  start  to  become  broody 
and  their  desire  to  sit  broken  up  by  confining  them  to  a 
broody  coop.  Indications  of  broodiness  in  hens  are :  stay- 
ing on  the  nests  all  day  or  for  long  periods,  the  ruffling 
up  of  the  feathers  and  a  screeching  or  clucking  noise  and 
an  attempt  by  the  hens  to  keep  from  being  touched  when 
they  are  approached. 

The  hens  are  broken  of  their  desire  to  sit  by  being 
confined  to  well-ventilated  coops  which  have  slat  bottoms 
or  to  small  pens  in  which  there  is  no  place  for  the  hens  to 
make  a  nest.  Placing  a  vigorous  young  male  bird  in  the 
coop  or  pen  and  feeding  the  hens  on  mash  without  any 
scratch  feed,  aids  materially  in  breaking  up  broodiness 
promptly.  These  hens  should  always  have  plenty  of 
water.  Starving  the  hens  for  several  days,  although  it 
does  to  some  extent  help  to  break  up  broodiness  more 
quickly,  is  not  advisable  because  it  puts  the  hens  in  poor 
condition  to  start  in  laying  again,  while  the  free  use  of 
mash  gets  the  hens  into  laying  condition  quickly.  Re- 
moving the  hens  from  the  nests  just  as  soon  as  they  start 
to  go  broody  is  the  most  effective  way  to  shorten  the 
broody  period.  Hens  do  not  lay  any  eggs  while  broody. 

The  time  required  to  break  up  broodiness  varies  with 
different  hens  and  with  the  seasons  of  the  year.  It 

192 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

usually  can  be  done  in  from  four  to  seven  days  if  the  hens 
are  managed  properly,  although  some  hens  will  remain 
broody  for  a  much  longer  period.  The  broody  period  is 
usually  longer  in  the  spring  and  early  summer  than  either 
in  the  late  winter  or  fall.  Certain  breeds,  especially  the 
Buff  Cochins  and  the  Buff  Orpingtons  are  much  more 
inclined  to  broodiness  than  most  breeds,  while  the  light- 
weight breeds  like  the  Leghorns  are  practically  non- 
broody.  Some  strains  are  more  inclined  to  broodiness 
than  others.  As  soon  as  the  broody  hens  are  through 
their  broodiness,  which  is  indicated  by  a  lack  of  those 
signs  indicating  broodiness,  they  should  be  returned 
promptly  to  the  laying  pen, 


193 


CHAPTER  XIII 

FEEDING  DUCKS,   GEESE,  TURKEYS,   PIGEONS  AND   CAPONS 

The  Feeding  of  Ducks.  The  kind  of  ducks  kept  affects 
materially  the  feeding.  Pekin  ducks  are  kept  primarily 
for  the  production  of  green  ducklings  and  their  eggs  are 
used  very  largely  for  hatching  on  duck  farms.  They 
should  therefore  be  fed  egg-laying  rations  only  during 
the  breeding  season  or  at  the  time  that  eggs  are  desired 
for  hatching.  The  rest  of  the  year  they  are  carried  on 
maintenance  rations.  Indian  Runner  ducks  or  ducks  kept 
for  commercial  egg  production  are  fed  the  egg-laying 
rations  throughout  the  year. 

Ducks  need  more  green  feed  and  vegetable  feeds  and 
are  usually  given  a  larger  proportion  of  mash  than  is  fed 
to  hens.  Pekin  ducks  are  fed  for  egg  production  from 
about  December  i  until  June  or  early  July.  From  July  I 
to  December  i  they  are  carried  on  a  maintenance  ration 
in  which  the  amount  of  mash  given  to  the  ducks  is  ma- 
terially reduced. 

FEEDING  DUCKLINGS 

Ducklings  do  not  need  feed  until  they  are  from  24  to 
36  hours  old,  after  which  they  may  be  fed  five  times 
daily  on  a  mixture  of  equal  parts,  by  measure,  of  rolled 
oats  and  bread  crumbs,  with  3  per  cent  of  sharp  sand 
mixed  in  the  feed.  About  the  third  day  this  feed  is 

194 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

changed  to  equal  parts  of  bread,  rolled  oats,  bran,  and 
corn  meal;  then  after  the  seventh  day  to  three  parts  of 
bran,  one  part  each  of  low-grade  wheat  flour  and  of  corn 
meal,  10  per  cent  of  green  feed,  and  5  per  cent  of  meat 
scrap,  with  about  3  per  cent  of  sand  or  grit  in  all  of  the 
rations. 

Feed  four  times  daily  after  the  seventh  day  until  the 
ducklings  are  2  or  3  weeks  old,  when  they  need  to  be 
fed  only  three  times  daily.  After  the  ducklings  are  a  week 
old  the  grit  or  sand  may  be  fed  either  in  the  mash  or  in  a 
hopper,  but  the  common  practice  is  to  feed  grit  in 
all  duck  rations.  Meat  scrap  is  not  usually  fed  until 
the  ducks  are  a  week  old,  when  about  5  per  cent  is 
added  to  the  ration,  which  amount  is  gradually  increased 
to  15  per  cent  by  the  end  of  the  third  week.  Gradually 
increase  the  proportion  of  corn  meal  and  decrease  the 
bran  for  those  ducklings  which  are  to  be  marketed,  until 
the  ration  becomes  the  fattening  ration  given  below. 
Those  to  be  saved  for  breeding  should  be  given  the  duck- 
ling ration  with  the  increased  meat  scrap  (15  per  cent), 
but  not  fed  the  fattening  ration.  The  latter  should  also 
be  given  a  good  range  where  grass  and  running  water 
are  available;  if  confined  to  bare  yards,  considerable  green 
feed  and  vegetables  should  be  fed. 

The  ducklings  to  be  marketed  should  be  fattened  for 
two  weeks  before  killing  on  a  ration  made  of  three  parts, 
by  weight,  of  corn  meal,  two  parts  of  low-grade  flour 
or  middlings,  one  part  of  bran,  one-half  part  of  meat 
scrap,  with  3  per  cent  grit  and  10  per  cent  green  feed. 

195 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

Feed  this  mash  three  times  daily,  or  use  a  mash  of  three 
parts  corn  meal,  one  part  low-grade  wheat  flour,  one  part 
bran,  5  per  cent  meat  scrap,  and  3  per  cent  oyster  shell, 
with  the  green  feed  and  grit  added.  The  green  feed  is 
sometimes  left  out  of  the  ration  during  the  last  seven 
days  of  fattening,  but  it  is  easier  to  keep  the  ducklings  in 
good  feeding  condition  on  a  mash  containing  green  feed. 
Boiled  fish  may  replace  the  meat  scrap,  but  should  only  be 
fed  up  to  within  2  weeks  before  they  are  killed,  as  it  may 
give  a  fishy  taste  to  their  flesh.  A  considerable  quantity  of 
boiled  fish  is  also  fed  in  the  mash  to  laying  ducks  in  sec- 
tions where  the  duck  farms  border  on  the  water  and  where 
fish  are  available  at  a  very  small  cost.  This  fish  aids 
materially  in  reducing  the  cost  of  feeding. 

Green  ducks  are  marketed  at  from  8  to  12  weeks  of 
age,  according  to  their  condition  and  weight.  Two  or  3 
per  cent  of  oyster  shell  is  recommended  in  most  fattening 
rations,  but  bone  ash,  ground  or  cracked  bone,  or  bone 
meal  would  appear  to  be  better  mineral  feeds  to  add  to 
these  mixtures.  If  milk  is  available  at  profitable  feeding 
prices,  the  rations  recommended  for  crate- fattened 
chickens  would  give  good  results  in  fattening  ducklings, 
producing  a  well-bleached,  milk- fed  green  duck.  Celery 
seed  may  be  used  in  fattening  ducklings,  as  it  is  said  to 
flavor  the  flesh,  but  its  use  is  not  general. 

FEEDING    BREEDING   AND   LAYING  DUCKS 

Breeding  ducks,  if  not  kept  for  the  production  of  mar- 
ket eggs,  should  have  a  grass  range  if  possible  after  the 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

hatching  season  is  over  and  be  fed  sparingly  on  a  mash 
of  one  part,  by  weight,  corn  meal,  two  parts  bran,  one 
part  low-grade  wheat  flour,  one  part  green  feed,  8  per 
cent  beef  scrap,  and  3  per  cent  grit,  given  once  or  twice 
daily,  with  one  feed  of  mixed  grains ;  or  the  mash  may  be 
made  of  three  parts,  by  measure,  corn  meal,  four  parts 
bran,  two  parts  low-grade  wheat  flour,  three-fourths  of  a 
part  of  meat  scrap,  and  two  parts  of  green  feed,  with  a 
small  amount  of  grit  and  shell  or  mineral  matter. 

Feed  Pekin  ducks  for  eggs  beginning  about  the  first 
of  December  on  a  mash  of  I  pound  of  corn  meal,  I  pound 
of  low-grade  wheat  flour  or  middlings,  i  pound  of  bran, 
15  per  cent  of  beef  scrap,  15  per  cent  of  vegetables  or 
green  feed,  and  some  grit,  feeding  this  mash  twice  daily, 
in  the  morning  and  at  night,  and  also  giving  i  quart  of 
mixed  corn  and  wheat  to  every  30  ducks  at  noon  when 
they  are  laying  heavily.  This  laying  ration  should  be  fed 
throughout  the  year  to  Indian  Runners  or  to  any  breed 
of  ducks  kept  principally  for  the  production  of  market 
eggs.  If  the  Indian  Runner  ducks  are  not  laying  they 
should  be  fed  sparingly.  All  rations  are  by  weight  un- 
less otherwise  stated.  Thirty  laying  ducks  (Pekins)  will 
eat  about  10  quarts  of  moistened  mash  and  green  feed 
at  each  meal. 

Green  cut  alfalfa,  clover,  rye,  oats,  and  corn  are  used 
as  soiling  crops  or  green  feed  for  ducks  and  ducklings, 
and  are  mixed  in  the  mash.  Ducklings  and  ducks  are 
usually  fed  mash  on  flat  feed  boards  rather  than  in 
troughs.  The  drinking  water  should  be  near  the  feed,  so 

197 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

that  the  ducks  can  eat  and  drink  at  about  the  same  time. 
Water  fountains  for  ducks  should  be  deep  enough  to 
allow  the  latter  to  get  their  bills  into  the  water  to  wash 
sand  or  grit  out  of  their  nostrils. 

Wet  or  moist  mashes  are  used  almost  exclusively,  but 
as  they  are  more  forcing  than  whole  grains  it  would  be 
advisable,  in  case  many  of  the  eggs  are  infertile,  to  feed 
more  whole  or  cracked  grains  and  less  mash  to  ducks 
during  the  breeding  season. 

FEEDING  GEESE 

Geese  are  raised  generally  where  they  have  a  good 
grass  range  or  pasture,  and,  except  during  the  winter 
months,  usually  pick  up  most  of  their  living.  The  pasture 
may  be  supplemented  with  light  feeds  of  home-grown 
grains  or  wet  mash  daily,  the  necessity  and  quantity  of 
this  feed  depending  on  the  condition  of  the  pasture.  Dur- 
ing the  winter,  when  pasture  is  no  longer  available,  they 
should  have  both  grain  and  roughage,  but  great  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  overfeed  the  breeders  so  that  they 
will  become  too  fat,  with  the  consequent  result  of  poor 
fertility  and  unsatisfactory  hatches. 

Oats  make  a  desirable  grain  feed  for  breeding  geese, 
but  a  limited  proportion  of  corn,  wheat,  or  barley  may 
be  added  for  variety.  The  greater  part  of  the  feed,  how- 
ever, should  be  made  up  of  roughage,  such  as  vegetables, 
clover,  or  alfalfa  hay,  chopped-corn  stover,  or  silage. 
Silage  is  an  ideal  feed  if  it  does  not  contain  too  much 
corn  and  is  perfectly  free  from  mold. 

198 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

It  is  desired  to  have  the  geese  lay  early,  so  that  the 
first  goslings  will  hatch  by  the  time  there  is  green  grass 
for  pasture;  and  as  the  breeding  season  approaches  it  is 
necessary  to  increase  the  quantity  of  feed  slightly  and  add 
to  it  a  mash,  which  is  usually  given  in  the  morning,  and 
may  be  made  of  3  parts  bran  or  shorts,  I  part  corn  meal, 
and  one- fourth  part  meat  scrap;  or  buttermilk  may  be 
used  in  place  of  meat  scrap.  This  mash  should  be  fed 
with  the  vegetables  or  roughage. 

Grit  and  oyster  shell  should  be  kept  before  the  geese 
when  they  are  laying  and  may  be  provided  all  the  time 
to  advantage.  A  constant  supply  of  drinking  water 
should  be  available  at  all  times,  and  it  is  best  supplied  in 
drinking  fountains  or  vessels  so  constructed  that  the 
stock  can  not  get  their  feet  into  the  water. 

FEEDING  OF  GOSLINGS 

Goslings  do  not  need  feed  until  they  are  36  hours  old 
or  more,  when  they  should  be  fed  stale  bread  soaked  in 
milk  or  water,  to  which  finely  chopped  boiled  eggs  may 
be  added.  This  should  be  fed  three  or  four  times  daily 
for  the  first  2  or  3  weeks,  with  chopped  grass  or  some 
other  green  feed  added,  this  latter  to  be  increased  in 
quantity  from  the  first.  Plenty  of  fresh,  clean  water 
should  be  supplied,  and  5  per  cent  of  fine  grit  or  sharp 
sand  may  be  added  to  the  feed  or  this  grit  kept  in  a 
hopper  before  the  goslings. 

After  2  or  3  weeks,  if  the  goslings  have  a  good  grass 
range,  they  will  need  only  one  light  feed  daily  of  a  mash 

199 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

made  up  of  2  parts  shorts  and  i  part  of  corn  meal  or 
ground  oats  or  ground  barley.  After  they  are  6  weeks 
old,  if  they  still  need  extra  feed,  change  the  mash  to  equal 
parts  shorts,  corn  meal,  and  ground  oats,  with  5  per  cent 
meat  scrap.  Where  the  pasture  is  good,  many  goslings 
are  raised  from  the  time  they  are  2  or  3  weeks  old  to  fat- 
tening time  without  any  grain  feed,  but  the  addition  of  a 
small  amount  of  the  mash  given  above  is  an  advantage  at 
all  times.  Whole  grains  are  not  usually  fed  until  the 
goslings  are  well  feathered. 

PREPARING  FOR  MARKET 

In  a  few  sections,  young  geese,  when  fully  feathered 
or  when  the  long  flight  wing  feathers  reach  the  tail,  are 
fattened  in  large  numbers  by  buyers  who  make  a  specialty 
of  this  business.  Different  methods  are  used  success- 
fully in  the  special  fattening  of  geese  on  a  large  scale.  A 
goose-fattening  farm  in  Illinois  buys  large  numbers  of 
geese  and  fattens  them  for  one  month  in  an  orchard  or 
cornfield  of  flocks  of  1,000  or  more.  No  shelter  is  pro- 
vided other  than  that  of  trees  or  standing  cornstalks,  ex- 
cept in  unusually  severe  weather,  when  the  geese  are 
driven  into  sheds. 

Corn  on  the  cob  and  plenty  of  water  are  kept  before 
the  geese  all  the  time  and  they  eat  the  leaves  off  the  corn- 
stalks for  roughage.  These  geese  are  then  shipped  alive 
in  a  poultry  car  to  the  New  York  market.  Some  farmers 
fatten  their  own  geese.  The  geese  may  be  "pen  fattened" 
in  flocks  of  from  20  to  25  and  fed  three  times  daily,  giv- 

200 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

ing  one  feed  of  a  moist  but  not  sloppy  mash,  made  of 
one-third  shorts  and  two-thirds  corn  meal  and  two  feeds 
of  corn  with  some  oats  or  barley. 

The  pens  should  be  kept  partly  darkened  and  the  geese 
disturbed  as  little  as  possible.  It  is  important  to  use 
plenty  of  bedding  of  oat  straw,  both  to  keep  the  pens 
clean  and  to  provide  roughage,  as  the  geese  will  eat  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  the  straw.  Some  roughage  or 
vegetables  should  be  provided.  An  increase  in  weight  of 
from  4  to  6  pounds  can  be  obtained  by  this  method  of 
feeding. 

NODDLING  GEESE 

Another  method  which  produces  a  much  better  fat- 
tened goose  but  involves  considerably  more  work  is  to 
stuff  large  geese  with  noodles  for  3  or  4  weeks.  From  8 
to  10  geese  are  confined  to  a  pen  about  8  by  12  feet, 
which  is  kept  heavily  bedded  with  fresh  oat  straw.  The 
feeder  sits  on  a  box  in  one  corner  of  the  pen,  holds  the 
goose  between  his  legs  and  stuffs  it  with  noodles,  usually 
beginning  by  feeding  from  3  to  5  noodles  three  times 
daily  and  gradually  increasing  to  6  or  7  noodles  five  times 
daily  at  4-hour  intervals. 

The  noodles  are  made  of  scalded  corn  meal,  ground 
oats,  ground  barley,  and  ground  wheat  or  wheat  flour, 
using  about  equal  parts  of  each.  Add  salt  as  for  bread, 
thoroughly  mix  the  feed,  and  put  it  through  a  sausage 
stuffer,  cutting  the  product  into  pieces  2%  or  3  inches 
long.  Boil  them  from  10  to  15  minutes,  or  until  they 
float,  in  a  wash  boiler  containing  a  wire  rack  which 

201 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 


stands  1^/2  inches  above  the  bottom  of  the  boiler.  Dip 
the  noodles  in  cold  water  and  roll  in  flour  to  keep  them 
from  sticking  together.  Pour  hot  water  over  the  noodles 
just  before  they  are  fed  to  make  them  slippery  and  keep 
them  warm. 

The  number  of  noodles  fed  depends  on  the  size  and 
condition  of  the  bird  and  the  judgment  of  the  feeder. 
The  noodles  are  put  into  the  mouth,  one  at  a  time,  and 
worked  down  with  the  hand  on  the  outside  of  the  neck. 
If  any  feed  can  be  felt,  no  noodles  are  given  at  the  next 
feeding  time;  otherwise  the  bird  will  go  off  its  feed. 
Keep  plenty  of  drinking  water  before  the  geese.  The 
young  ganders  are  used  for  this  special  fattening,  and 
any  older  ganders  or  geese  to  be  disposed  of.  A  parti- 
tion extending  half-way  across  the  pen  is  used  to  keep 
the  geese  separate  as  they  are  fed.  The  pen  is  kept  dark 
and  the  geese  disturbed  as  little  as  possible. 

One  man  can  feed  from  50  to  100  geese  by  this  method, 
but  it  involves  lots  of  work  and  long  hours,  the  first  feed 
being  given  at  5  in  the  morning  and  the  last  at  about  1  1 
in  the  evening.  A  high  price  must  be  obtained  for  geese 
thus  fed  to  make  this  kind  of  fattening  profitable. 
Noodlings  will  give  a  gain  of  from  6  to  10  pounds,  while 
a  price  of  from  10  to  15  cents  a  pound  above  that  paid 
for  geese  not  specially  fattened  is  often  received. 

FEEDING  TURKEYS 

Turkeys  for  breeders  should  be  fed  sparingly  and  need 
to  be  kept  on  free  range  where  they  will  pick  up  most 

202 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

of  their  feed.  If  turkeys  are  fed  freely  and  kept  closely 
confined  they  do  not  as  a  rule  make  good  breeders. 
Where  free  range  is  available  on  which  there  is  consider- 
able natural  feed,  one  feed  of  grain  daily,  either  oats  or 
wheat,  and  only  a  little  corn  is  all  that  the  birds  require. 
This  feed  should  be  given  in  the  evening  in  order  to  bring 
the  birds  back  around  the  farm  house  every  night.  If 
not  fed  any  grain  the  turkeys  are  apt  to  wander  a  long 
ways  away  from  the  house  and  may  wander  off  and  not 
return  at  all.  The  turkeys  will  pick  up  grass,  nuts,  .seeds 
and  other  things  of  this  kind  from  the  range  during  the 
spring  and  summer. 

In  the  North  the  turkeys  should  be  fed  more  feed  dur- 
ing the  winter  months  and  are  usually  fed  twice  a  day  on 
grain  using  a  mixture  of  oats,  wheat  and  corn  with  not 
over  one-third  corn  and  in  addition  are  given  plenty  of 
green  feed  or  roughage  such  as  sprouted  oats,  cabbages, 
mangel  beets  or  some  vegetables.  A  small  amount  of 
animal  feed  can  be  added  to  the  turkey's  ration  in  the 
winter  months  when  they  are  not  able  to  get  any  insects 
from  the  range.  This  may  be  added  by  feeding  milk  in 
some  form  or  scraps  of  fresh  meat  if  any  are  available, 
A  limited  amount  of  commercial  meat  scrap  can  be  used 
if  none  of  the  other  animal  feeds  are  available.  A  con- 
stant supply  of  grit,  oyster  shells  and  charcoal  should  be 
kept  where  the  turkeys  can  get  at  it  all  of  the  time.  The 
essential  thing  is  to  keep  the  turkeys  in  good  breeding 
condition  but  not  to  let  them  get  fat. 

203 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

FEEDING  TURKEY  POULTS 

Feeding  the  poults  properly  is  very  important  as  turkey 
poults  are  more  difficult  to  raise  than  chickens  and  there 
is  no  question  but  what  the  feeding  of  poults  has  much 
to  do  with  their  success.  If  poults  are  fed  freely  and 
especially  where  they  are  kept  confined  they  will  not  do 
well.  Over-feeding  with  lack  of  exercise  will  bring  on 
digestive  troubles  and  result  in  heavy  mortality  in  the 
flock  of  poults.  They  should  be  fed  lightly  and  made  to 
range  for  a  considerable  part  of  their  feed.  Where  a 
good  range  is  available  they  can  secure  all  of  the  feed 
necessary  except  for  one  good  feed  of  grain  at  night.  It 
is  advisable  to  give  one  good  feed  every  evening  in  order 
that  the  poults  will  come  back  to  the  house  and  learn  to 
roost  there  at  night. 

Turkey  poults  do  not  need  any  feed  until  after  48  hours, 
the  yolk  of  the  egg  being  sufficient  sustenance  for  them 
during  that  period.  They  should  be  given  water  and  sup- 
plied with  fine  grit  or  coarse  sand  and  green  feed.  After 
48  hours  they  should  be  given  feed,  the  amount  depending 
on  the  quality  of  feed  on  the  range.  It  is  essential  that 
they  be  kept  hungry  to  make  them  exercise  and  range  a 
considerable  distance  from  their  house.  Turkey  poults 
should  not  be  fed  over  two  or  three  times  a  day  if  they 
have  a  reasonable  range  but  would  need  to  be  fed  very 
lightly  four  or  five  times  daily  if  they  are  kept  confined 
to  a  small  place. 

Many  different  kinds  of  feeds  are  used  for  turkey 
poults  with  good  results,  the  amount  and  kind  of  feeds 

204 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

given  having  more  influence  than  the  actual  feeds  used. 
One  of  the  most  common  methods  is  to  use  hard-boiled 
eggs  chopped  up  fine,  mixed  with  bread  crumbs  and  rolled 
oats  for  the  first  week,  after  which  wheat  and  hulled  oats 
are  fed.  The  turkey  poults  need  some  special  feed  for 
the  first  few  days  regardless  of  the  range.  Milk  in  some 
form  is  an  excellent  feed  for  turkeys  and  assists  material- 
ly in  keeping  the  turkey  poults  well.  Stale  bread  soaked 
in  milk  and  fed  after  the  milk  has  been  squeezed  out 
makes  a  good  feed  for  the  first  few  days  followed  by  the 
wheat  and  hulled  oats  or  by  chick  feed.  Skim  milk  or 
buttermilk  kept  before  the  turkey  poults  all  of  the  time 
is  an  excellent  feed.  Some  turkey  breeders  do  not  give 
any  soft  feed  but  start  the  poults  right  off  on  finely 
cracked  grains  allowing  them  to  get  all  of  the  other  feed 
from  the  range.  Johnnycake  or  corn  bread  is  also  used 
with  good  results  for  the  first  few  days.  Green  feed 
should  ordinarily  be  secured  from  the  range  but  if  for 
any  reason  the  poults  are  confined,  green  feed  should  be 
provided.  Chopped  onion  tops,  alfalfa,  dandelion  leaves 
and  lettuce  leaves  make  excellent  green  feed.  They  may 
be  fed  to  advantage  during  the  first  3  or  4  days  of  their 
lives  to  all  of  the  turkey  poults  whether  yarded  or  on 
range.  Grit  in  the  form  of  coarse  sand  or  finely  sifted 
grit  should  be  provided  and  a  little  coarse  sand  can  be 
sprinkled  on  the  soft  feeds  which  are  fed  to  the  baby 
poults. 

The  mother  hen  if  brooding  poults  should  be  fed  a  mix- 
ture of  grain  such  as  equal  parts  of  corn,  wheat  and  oats 

205 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

and  should  be  provided  with  green  feed,  grit  and  plenty 
of  fresh  water.  A  small  amount  of  meat  scrap  or  fresh 
meat  is  greatly  relished  by  hens  which  are  raising  a  brood 
of  poults.  The  feed  for  the  poults  is  usually  given  out- 
side of  the  coop  so  that  the  poults  get  it  and  it  is  not 
eaten  by  the  hen.  The  hen  and  the  poults  should  not  be 
confined  for  more  than  3  or  4  days  unless  the  weather 
conditions  are  unfavorable.  If  the  poults  are  kept  con- 
fined in  coops  at  night  it  may  be  worth  while  to  confine 
small  turkey  poults  for  a  short  time  in  the  morning  until 
the  grass  gets  dry. 

FATTENING  TURKEYS 

Turkeys  will  not  stand  close  confinement  for  fattening 
and  usually  lose  rather  than  gain  weight  under  such  con- 
ditions. They  may,  however,  be  fed  fattening  feeds  dur- 
ing the  fall  in  order  to  get  them  in  good  market  condition, 
still  allowing  them  free  range.  About  October  i,  two 
moderate  feeds  a  day  may  be  given  which  can  be  in- 
creased three  times  daily  during  the  week  previous  to 
marketing.  They  should  only  be  given  what  feed  they 
will  clean  up  in  a  few  minutes.  Corn,  wheat  and  oats  are 
the  feeds  commonly  used  but  corn  alone  should  not  be 
used  as  the  turkeys  are  not  apt  to  do  well  if  only  given 
corn.  A  mixture  of  equal  parts  corn,  wheat  and  oats 
makes  a  good  feed  to  begin  the  fattening  about  the  first 
of  October,  gradually  increasing  the  amount  of  corn  so 
that  the  turkeys  are  getting  from  two-thirds  to  three- 
fourths  corn  at  the  time  they  are  ready  for  market. 

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PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

During  the  fall  months  and  at  the  time  when  turkeys 
are  getting  in  shape  for  market  they  will  pick  up  many 
nuts  and  in  some  sections  they  pick  up  sufficient  nuts  such 
as  beechnuts,  chestnuts,  acorns  and  pecans  to  get  them  in 
good  market  condition  without  additional  feeding.  As  a 
rule,  however,  it  pays  to  give  additional  feed  previous  to 
marketing. 

FEEDING  PIGEONS 

The  feeding  of  pigeons  for  squab  raising  is  different 
from  the  feeding  of  pigeons  for  flying  purposes  as  more 
expensive  feeds  are  used  for  the  flying  birds.  The 
pigeons  feed  their  own  young  so  that  it  is  necessary  to 
feed  the  breeding  birds  freely  during  the  time  that  they 
have  squabs.  The  squabs  are  reared  and  fed  by  both  of 
the  parent  birds  on  a  thick  creamy  mixture  called  pigeon 
milk  which  is  produced  in  the  crop  of  the  pigeons.  Care 
should  be  taken  not  to  frighten  or  disturb  the  pigeons 
right  after  feeding  as  at  that  time  they  usually  feed  th£ 
squabs.  If  the  parent  birds  die  the  squabs  may  be  re- 
moved to  another  nest  where  there  is  only  one  squab  or 
they  may  be  fed  artificially.  The  latter  process,  however, 
takes  considerable  time. 

FEEDING  SQUAB  BREEDERS 

Many  varieties  of  grains  are  used  in  feeding  pigeons. 
A  good  mixture  of  staple  grains  may  be  made  of  equal 
parts  by  weight  of  small  whole  corn,  hard  red  wheat, 
Kaffir  corn,  and  Canada  peas,  with  a  small  quantity  (about 

207 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

5  per  cent  each)  of  hemp  and  millet  seeds  added  during 
the  molting  period.  Other  grains  which  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  or  added  to  these  are  peanuts,  dried  garden  peas, 
cowpeas,  oats  or  hulled  oats,  buckwheat,  Egyptian  corn, 
and  milo  maize,  while  a  small  quantity  of  .stale  bread,  rice, 
rape,  millet,  canary,  vetch  or  sunflower  seed  may  be  fed 
for  variety.  Canada  peas  are  expensive,  but  seem  to  be 
essential  to  the  best  results,  especially  during  the  breeding 
season.  They  apparently  take  the  place  of  green  feed  to 
some  extent.  Peanuts,  cowpeas,  and  dried  garden  peas 
give  quite  good  results  and  sometimes  are  used  in  place 
of  Canada  peas  when  the  latter  are  high  in  price.  Soy 
beans  do  not  seem  to  be  so  well  liked  by  pigeons.  Tender 
green  feed,  such  as  freshly  cut  clover,  alfalfa,  and  grass, 
lettuce,  plantain  leaves,  and  chickweed  may  be  fed,  but 
are  not  essential. 

A  variety  of  good,  hard,  thoroughly  dried  grains  is 
essential  to  success.  Grains  which  are  in  poor  condition 
should  not  be  fed.  Old  grains  which  are  hard  are  much 
better  than  new  soft  grains,  especially  for  pigeons  with 
squabs.  New  soft  grains,  especially  wheat  and  corn, 
should  never  be  fed  to  pigeons,  as  they  will  cause  bad  re- 
sults in  the  flock,  particularly  among  the  squabs.  Feed 
whole  corn  and  avoid  cracked  corn  unless  it  is  freshly 
cracked.  Pigeon  corn  which  is  smaller  and  harder  than 
common  corn  is  used  extensively  for  pigeons.  Many 
pigeon  breeders  reduce  the  proportion  of  corn  during  the 
summer,  feeding  from  one-half  to  three- fourths  less  of 
this  grain  than  in  the  winter.  Red  wheat  is  considered 

208 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 


better  than  white  wheat  by  many  pigeon  breeders.  Good 
wheat  screenings  are  often  fed  with  success,  as  they 
usually  contain  a  variety  of  seeds.  Various  stimulating 
seeds,  such  as  lentils  and  vetch,  are  sometimes  fed  as  a 
tonic  to  breeding  birds  during  the  molting  period. 

The  following  table  gives  an  analysis  of  the  grains  most 
commonly  used  in  feeding  pigeons.  The  protein  content 
is  very  high  in  the  three  kinds  of  peas  and  in  peanuts. 
One  feed  very  high  in  protein  seems  to  be  essential  to  get 
the  best  results.  The  ration  of  equal  parts  by  weight  of 
whole  corn,  red  wheat,  Kafir  corn,  and  Canada  peas  con- 
tains 14.2  per  cent  protein,  65.6  per  cent  nitrogen-free 
extract,  69.2  per  cent  carbohydrates  (total  of  nitrogen- 
free  extract  plus  the  fiber),  and  2.8  per  cent  fat,  is  a 
good  one. 

TABLE  V 

Composition  of  Pigeon  Feedstuffs 


Feedstuffs 

Water 

Ash 

Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Ftber 

Nitrogen 
free 
Extract 

Corn 

Per 
cent. 
10.9 
10.  s 

12.8 
II  .0 

15.0 
13-4 
ii.  9 

,5:1 

12.6 
12.  I 

8.0 
8.6 

Per 
cent. 

1:1 

2.  I 

3-o 

2-4 
2.4 

3-4 
2.4 
2.O 

11 

2.0 
2.6 

Per 

cent. 

10.5 
II.  9 

9.1 
ii.  8 
23.7 
22.4 
23-5 
27.9 

IO.O 

9.9 
10.9 

IO.O 

15.3 

Per 

cent. 

2.1 

1.8 

2.6 

9-5 

7-9 

l:i 
lr 

1.9 
8.1 
14-0 
29.9 

Per 
cent. 
69.6 
71-9 
69.8 
59-7 
50.2 
52.6 
55-7 
15.6 
64.5 

£>•£ 
62.6 

45-0 
21.4 

Per 
cent. 
5-4 

2.  I 

3-6 

*:l 

3-o 
39-6 

2.2 

3*9 
3.5 
21.0 
31.2 

Wheat  

Kaffir  corn     

Oats 

Canada  peas  

Cowpeas    

Buckwheat    

Millet    ............. 

Sunflower   seed  

Note:    Also  see  Table  II  in  Appendix  for  Composition. 

209 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

The  grain  may  be  fed  on  the  floor  of  the  pen,  in 
troughs,  or  kept  before  the  birds  in  hoppers.  It  is  not 
generally  considered  advisable  to  feed  the  grain  on  the 
ground,  especially  on  heavy  soil  where  it  may  get  wet  and 
moldy.  Unless  the  floor  is  kept  clean  it  is  better  to  feed 
the  grain  in  troughs  than  on  the  floor.  The  troughs 
should  be  made  so  that  the  pigeons  will  not  roost  on  them 
and  soil  the  feed  with  their  droppings.  Hoppers  in  which 
considerable  feed  is  kept  are  sometimes  used  with  success 
but  may  attract  rats  in  some  pigeon  houses.  Troughs  and 
open  hoppers  should  be  fitted  with  wires  or  slats  about 
two  inches  apart  so  that  the  pigeons  cannot  waste  the  feed 
by  throwing  it  out  on  the  floor.  If  the  grain  is  not  kept 
in  hoppers  the  pigeons  should  be  fed  twice  daily,  in  the 
morning  and  in  the  afternoon,  at  regular  hours,  giving 
about  il/2  to  2  quarts  of  grain  at  each  meal  to  20  pairs  of 
pigeons  and  adding  an  extra  pint  if  the  pigeons  have  many 
squabs.  The  feeder  must  regulate  the  quantity  of  grain 
according  to  the  appetite  of  the  birds,  giving  them  all 
they  will  eat  and  keeping  a  little  grain  in  the  feeder. 

Clear  drinking  water,  grit,  sifted  oyster  shell,  and  char- 
coal should  be  kept  before  the  pigeons  at  all  times.  Salt 
is  fed  to  pigeons  in  various  forms,  and  a  supply  is  gen- 
erally considered  essential.  Pigeons  not  accustomed  to 
eating  fine  salt  may  eat  too  much  if  given  a  large  quantity 
at  one  time,  although  it  is  used  with  success  by  many  ear- 
ful feeders.  Salt  may  be  fed  in  lump  form,  such  as  rock 
salt  or  as  fine  salt  moistened  and  baked  into  a  hard  lump, 
without  danger  of  the  pigeons'  eating  too  much.  Mix- 

210 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

tures  of  commercial  grits  containing  varying  proportions 
of  grit,  charcoal,  oyster  shells,  and  salt  are  used  by  many 
pigeon  raisers.  A  mixture  of  this  kind  may  be  made  of 
40  pounds  of  granite  grit,  40  pounds  of  oyster  shells,  10 
pounds  of  charcoal,  5  pounds  of  salt,  and  3  pounds  of 
Venetian  red.  Such  mixtures  are  relished  by  the  pigeons 
and  seem  to  have  some  value  in  keeping  them  in  good 
breeding  and  feeding  condition. 

Pans  of  water  for  bathing  should  be  provided  daily  ex- 
cept during  the  winter  and  placed  in  the  yards  or  fly- 
ways.  These  bath  pans  are  usually  filled  in  the  morning 
and  emptied  about  noon.  They  should  be  used  only  about 
twice  a  week  during  the  winter. 

FEEDING  FLYING  PIGEONS 

Pigeons  for  flying  purposes,  especially  during  the  time 
when  the  birds  are  used  in  races  or  long  flights,  are  fed 
largely  on  the  hardest  grains,  principally  Canada  peas. 
It  is  not  advisable  to  use  much  corn  in  their  ration  and 
only  a  small  amount  of  wheat  should  be  fed.  Special 
attention  must  be  paid  to  securing  a  good  grade  of  hard 
red  wheat  as  a  soft  wheat  is  not  good  for  such  pigeons. 

A  good  mixture  for  flying  pigeons  can  be  made  of  two 
parts  Canada  peas,  one  part  Kafir  corn  or  milo  and  one 
part  Argentine  corn  with  10  per  cent  of  hemp  seed  and  5 
per  cent  of  vetch.  During  special  races  or  when  it  is 
necessary  to  have  the  birds  in  the  very  pink  of  condition, 
the  Argentine  corn  can  be  omitted  and  the  pigeons  fed 
entirely  on  Canada  peas,  Kafir  corn,  vetch  and  hemp  seed. 

211 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

Some  pigeon  keepers  like  a  small  amount  of  millet  seed 
and  many  of  the  commercial  pigeon  feeds  contain  from 
5  to  10  per  cent  of  this  seed.  This  seed,  however,  is  not 
especially  relished  by  pigeons  and  they  will  only  eat  the 
millet  when  they  are  quite  hungry. 

Pigeons  for  flying  purposes  are  bred  during  the  spring 
and  early  summer  and  the  matings  are  usually  broken  up 
at  the  end  of  the  spring.  When  the  birds  are  not  being 
used  for  flying  or  breeding,  the  amount  of  corn  and 
wheat  can  be  increased  slightly  in  the  ration  and  the 
amount  of  peas,  hemp  seed  and  vetch  reduced  in  order 
to  cheapen  the  cost.  It  is  not  advisable,  however,  to  feed 
too  large  a  proportion  of  corn  during  warm  weather  and 
not  over  35  per  cent  should  be  fed  during  the  summer 
months. 

A  very  good  mixture  for  flying  birds  to  keep  them  in 
the  pink  of  condition  may  be  made  of  3  parts  of  Argentine 
corn,  3  parts  Canada  peas,  i]/2  parts  vetch  seed,  i  part 
hemp  seed,  Ij4  parts  good  rice  and  i  part  canary  seed. 
This  is  a  rather  expensive  mixture  for  constant  use. 

FEEDING  CAPONS 

As  capons  are  usually  kept  until  they  are  at  least  9  or 
10  months  old,  they  need  to  be  raised  on  a  good  grass 
range  in  order  both  to  keep  them  in  good  condition  and 
to  cheapen  the  cost  of  feeding.  A  good  growing  ration 
should  be  used  until  about  four  weeks  before  they  are  to 
be  marketed  when  the  corn  and  corn  meal  in  their  feed 
can  be  gradually  increased  until  the  ration  becomes  a  fat- 

212 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

tening  feed.  For  the  growing  mash  use  i  part  rolled  oats, 
I  part  ground  oats,  i  part  meat  scrap,  I  part  bran,  i  part 
middlings  and  2  parts  corn  meal. 

A  good  scratch  feed  to  use  with  this  mash  can  be  made 
of  2  parts  cracked  corn,  I  part  wheat  and  i  part  oats. 
Gradually  decrease  the  oats  in  the  mash  and  increase  the 
corn  meal  until  the  mash  becomes  a  fattening  mash  of  I 
part  bran,  i  part  middlings,  ]/?.  part  meat  scrap  and  3 
parts  corn  meal.  Use  with  this  fattening  mash  a  scratch 
feed  of  4  parts  cracked  corn,  I  part  wheat  and  i  part 
oats.  The  quality  of  capons  can  be  materially  improved 
by  either  pen  or  crate  fattening  them  for  the  last  two  or 
three  weeks,  using  the  rations  advised  for  fattening  in 
chapter  XI. 


213 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

PROFIT  AND   ECONOMY   IN   POULTRY   FEEDING 

The  object  in  feeding  laying  hens  is  to  produce  eggs 
most  economically  and  at  the  same  time  keep  up  the 
health  and  vitality  of  the  fowls.  This  means  the  selec- 
tion of  the  cheapest  feeds  which  will  give  good  egg  pro- 
duction and  does  not  necessarily  mean  the  selection  of  the 
highest  producing  ration  if  it  consists  of  too  high-priced 
feeds.  The  method  of  feeding  is  also  of  material  im- 
portance as  affecting  the  economical  cost  of  producing 
eggs  and  a  method  involving  only  moderate  expenditure 
of  labor  may  prove  a  more  profitable  way  of  handling 
laying  hens  than  some  other  method  which,  although  pro- 
ducing more  eggs,  produces  the  extra  eggs  at  too  great  a 
cost. 

Frequent  feeding  of  poultry  as  is  done  at  the  egg-lay- 
ing competitions  does  undoubtedly  increase  production 
but  most  poultrymen  find  that  a  simpler  method  of  feed- 
ing, involving  less  labor  and  producing  fewer  eggs  is 
more  profitable  for  their  conditions.  Hens  should  be  fed 
at  least  twice  daily  which  system  works  fairly  well  where 
a  dry  mash  is  used.  It  may  pay  to  feed  hens  three  times 
a  day  giving  the  green  feed  at  noon,  where  the  dry  mash 
system  is  followed. 

If  the  moist  mash  system  of  feeding  is  used  it  may 

214 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

also  pay  to  feed  three  times,  giving  the  moist  mash  at 
noon  and  grain  in  the  morning  and  in  the  evening.  Some 
poultrymen  who  use  the  moist  mash  give  this  in  the 
morning  and  feed  the  scratch  grains  at  night,  which 
system  works  all  right  where  the  hens  are  on  free  range 
in  colony  houses  but  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  hens  kept 
in  long  houses  and  confined  to  small  or  only  fair-sized 
yards. 

Eggs  must  be  produced  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  to 
make  poultry  farming  most  profitable  but  each  poultry- 
man  must  decide  for  himself  whether  or  not  it  is  most 
profitable  for  him  to  make  special  efforts  to  get  fall  and 
winter  eggs  by  special  methods,  such  as  by  the  use  of 
electric  lights,  or  merely  to  rely  on  the  more  common 
practices  of  getting  the  chicks  hatched  early,  using  well- 
balanced  rations  and  providing  comfortable  winter 
quarters.  As  far  as  the  actual  returns  over  immediate 
cost  is  concerned  the  poultryman  usually  makes  a  greater 
profit  during  the  spring  months  when  the  hens  are  laying 
freely  and  when  eggs  are  at  their  lowest  price,  than  he 
secures  in  the  fall  and  winter,  when  eggs  are  much  higher 
in  price. 

FEED  COST  OF  PRODUCING  EGGS 

The  feed  cost  of  producing  eggs  necessarily  varies 
greatly  according  to  the  success  used  in  the  management 
of  the  fowls,  the  breed  kept,  and  the  price  of  the  feeds 
used.  Where  high  egg  production  is  secured  without 
using  too  expensive  feeds  or  methods,  the  cost  of  egg 

215 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

production  is  much  lower  than  where  only  moderate  pro- 
duction is  secured.  This  is  also  materially  affected  by 
the  breeding  of  the  fowls. 

The  following  table  gives  a  fair  estimate  of  the  amount 
of  feed  required  to  produce  a  dozen  eggs  from  both  gen- 
eral-purpose fowls  and  from  Leghorns.  This  table  was 
worked  out  from  tests  made  at  the  Government  Poultry 
Farm,  Beltsville,  Md.,  and  from  reports  of  egg-laying 
contests  in  the  states  of  Connecticut  and  New  Jersey. 
It  represents  a  large  number  of  fowls  so  that  it  gives 
figures  which  are  representative.  The  government  tests 
cover  pens  during  a  period  of  .seven  years.  The  fowls 
at  the  government  farm  were  fed  by  a  simple  method  of 
feeding  so  that  the  egg  production  was  only  moderate  and 
is  no  higher  than  any  poultryman  can  get  on  a  commer- 
cial plant  which  is  well  handled.  Feed  consumption  from 
both  pullets  and  yearlings  are  given.  From  the  amounts 
of  feed  required  to  produce  a  dozen  eggs  it  is  easy  to  find 
the  feed  cost  of  producing  eggs  in  any  .section,  by  getting 
the  local  price  of  feeds.  The  proportion  of  pullets  to 
older  hens  must  be  considered  in  any  estimate  of  this 
kind  as  the  older  fowls  consume  much  more  feed  in  pro- 
ducing a  dozen  eggs  than  pullets,  especially  in  the  heavier 
breeds.  This  is  very  apparent  from  this  table  while 
the  difference  is  even  more  marked  with  hens  in  their 
third  and  fourth  years.  At  the  government  farm  the 
Leghorns  ate  6  pounds  of  feed  in  producing  a  dozen  eggs 
in  their  third  year  while  the  general-purpose  breeds  ate 
13.4  pounds.  The  difference  in  feed  per  dozen  eggs  be- 

216 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 


tween  the  Leghorns  and  the  general-purpose  breeds  gives 
one  of  the  main  reasons  why  the  Leghorns  are  the  breed 
kept  exclusively  on  commercial  egg  farms  in  this  country. 

TABLE  VI 

Feed  Consumed  per  Dozen  Eggs  at  Government  Poultry  Farm  and 
at  Egg  Laying  Contests 


Place 

Year 

Fowls 

Age 

Average 
Number 
Eggs 
Produced 

Pounds 
Feed 
per  Dozen 
Eggs 

Storrs,  Ct  

IQI5 

820 

pullets 

I4c 

6.8* 

Storrs  Ct  

*i/*  J 

1016 

1,000 

pullets 

IC2 

660 

Storrs  Ct  

IQI7 

I  OOO 

pullets 

162 

681 

Vineland,  N.  J. 
Vineland,  N.  J. 

Gov't    Farm.  .  . 

I9l6 

r  IQI7i 
[1913] 

to 
[1920] 

1,000 

I,  OOO 

1,710 

pullets 
yearlings 

pullets 

162 
129 

5.89 
7-55 

7.16 

The  results  from  these  different  sources  are  fairly  con- 
sistent and  the  differences  can  largely  be  accounted  for 
by  the  relative  percentage  of  Leghorns  and  heavier  breeds 
at  the  various  places.  The  Leghorns  eat  less  feed  in  pro- 
ducing a  dozen  eggs  as  well  be  seen  in  the  following 
table.  There  were  approximately  40  per  cent  Leghorns 
and  60  per  cent  general-purpose  fowls  at  Connecticut 
while  at  New  Jersey  the  figures  were  reversed  with  60 
per  cent  Leghorns  and  40  per  cent  general-purpose  fowls. 
On  the  government  farm  only  16  per  cent  were  Leghorns. 
The  results  with  the  amount  of  feed  used  by  different 
breeds  was  not  consistent,  varying  greatly  with  the  dif- 
ferent tests.  The  difference  between  the  light-weight 

217 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 


breeds  (Leghorns)  and  the  general-purpose  breeds  was 
quite  consistent  in  all  tests. 

In  the  following  table  representative  results  of  tests 
made  at  the  government  farm  are  given,  the  table  being 
made  up  of  pens  fed  on  the  best  rations.  The  average 
egg  production  is  given  together  with  an  average  produc- 
tion for  each  month  which  can  be  obtained  under  ordinary 
conditions  with  simple  methods  of  feeding.  The  Leg- 
horn hens  ate  from  55  to  60  pounds  of  feed  in  a  year  in  the 
government  tests  and  the  general-purpose  breeds  ate  from 
70  to  85  pounds.  At  the  contests  the  feed  consumption 
was  considerably  higher  due  largely  to  more  frequent 

TABLE  VII 

Monthly  Record  of  Total  Feed  Consumed  per  Dozen  Eggs  and  Egg 
Yield  per  Hen  at  the  Government  Farm 


Month 

General- 
purpose 
pullets 

General- 
purpose 
yearlings 

Leghorn 
pullets 

Leghorn 
yearlings 

Feed 
per 
dozen 
eggs 

Eggs 
per 
hen 

Feed 
per 
dozen 
eggs 

Eggs 
hen 

Feed 
per 
dozen 
eggs 

Eggs 
per 
hen. 

Feted 
per 
dozen 
eggs 

Eggs 
per 
hen 

November  .  .  . 
December  .  .  . 
January  .... 
February  .... 
March  ...... 

Lbs. 
10.9 
7-4 
10.9 

';! 

4.6 

4-4 

£' 

6.9 
9.2 

14.1 

No. 
8.1 

II.  2 
9.9 

10.8 
16.4 
16.5 
13-9 

12.0 
9-9 

9-3 
7-5 
S-o 

Lbs. 
34-6 
32.9 
32.7 

12.6 

8-5 
5-7 

1.1 

1:1 

10.  O 
21.0 

No. 
2.4 

2.6 

I'.1, 

9-3 
I3-I 

10.5 
10.4 
8.6 

II.  O 

6-7 

4-9 

Lbs. 

No. 

Lbs. 

No. 

!:i 

5-4 
4-7 
3-3 
3-0 
3-2 
4.9 
4-8 
8.6 
10.9 
18.4 

9.1 

1O.O 
12.  I 

16.0 

18.3 

19.0 

14.8 

10.4 
10.6 
8.0 

5-2 

5.2 

20.3 

1O.O 

5-8 

» 

3-3 
3-4 
3-9 
5-3 

7-i 
30.8 
18.6 

3-o 
7.0 
10.3 
14.2 
17.7 
19.4 
16.3 
14.8 
II.  J 
7-4 
2.9 
•4 

Aoril 

M&  " 

July 

August  
September  .  . 
October  

Average  or 
total  .  .  . 

6.7 

I30.S 

9.6 

88.1 

4.8 

138.7 

5-5 

124.9 

218 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

feeding,  and  with  the  Leghorns  also  partly  due  to  their 
being  larger  sized  birds  than  on  the  government  farm. 

The  general-purpose  pullets  ate  in  a  year  an  average  of 
6.7  pounds  of  feed  per  i  dozen  eggs  produced  and  the 
yearlings  ate  9.6  pounds.  The  Leghorn  pullets  ate  4.8 
pounds  and  the  yearlings  5.5  pounds.  The  general-pur- 
pose pullets  ate  1.9  pounds  more  feed  in  producing  a 
dozen  eggs  than  the  Leghorn  pullets,  and  the  difference 
increases  very  rapidly  with  the  age  of  the  stock,  the  gen- 
eral-purpose yearlings  consuming  4.1  pounds  more  feed 
per  dozen  eggs  than  the  Leghorn  yearlings ;  therefore  the 
Leghorns  produced  eggs  more  cheaply  than  the  general- 
purpose  breeds. 

The  value  of  the  general-purpose  breeds  for  market  or 
for  hatching  and  breeding  makes  them  usually  the  most 
desirable  breeds  for  the  general  farmer  and  the  backyard- 
poultry  raiser,  while  the  Leghorns  are  especially  adapted 
for  commercial  egg  farms. 

FEED  COST  OF  GROWING  CHICKENS 

The  feed  cost  of  growing  chickens  is  a  much  more 
variable  factor  than  the  feed  cost  of  producing  eggs  be- 
cause growing  chicks  are  more  affected  by  various  factors, 
Especially  by  mortality  and  by  weather  conditions.  The 
mortality  in  laying  hens  will  average  about  10  per  cent 
in  a  year  in  pullets  and  yearlings  of  the  general-purpose 
breeds  and  is  usually  from  2  to  5  per  cent  lower  than  this 
in  the  Leghorns.  The  mortality  in  growing  chicks  may 

219 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 


be  as  great  as  50  per  cent  and  will  usually  average  from 
10  to  25  per  cent  even  under  good  conditions.  This  in- 
cludes weak  and  unthrifty  chicks  culled  and  those  which 
are  lost  or  killed  by  rats,  hawks  and  crows.  These  fac- 
tors make  it  much  more  difficult  to  give  reasonably 
accurate  figures  on  the  feed  cost  of  growing  chickens, 
especially  figures  which  will  be  applicable  to  various  con- 
ditions and  to  different  people. 

The  amount  of  data  available  on  chick  feeding  is  also 
very  much  more  limited  than  the  data  on  feeding  hens. 
The  following  table  gives  figures  on  the  feed  required  to 
rear  chickens  as  secured  at  the  Indiana  experiment  station, 
at  the  Connecticut  station  and  at  the  Canadian  govern- 
ment farm,  Ottawa,  Canada; 

TABLE  VIII 

Feed  Required  to  Grow  Chickens 


Breed 

Kind 

Age 
weeks 

Weight 
pounds. 

Feed 
pounds 

Milk 
pounds 

Plaqe 

White  Plymouth 
Rocks 

M 
« 

White  Leghorns 

M 

Rhode  Island  Reds 
•« 
« 
«« 

Barred  Plymouth 
Rocks 

Broilers 
Roasters 
Pullets 
Capons 
BroUera 

Pullets 
« 

Broilers 
« 

Pullets 
Broilers 
Pullets 

9  to  10 
24 
28 

4* 

8 
14 
17 
at 
7 
ii 
16 

22 

10 

2O 

2.O 

6.5 

4.8  to 
5-6 
24  to 

27 

27  to 
30 

64  to 

67 

$:i 

13-6 
19.4 
3.0 

.5:1 

23-7 
S.  s 

6.5  to 

8-5 

22 
22    tO 

37 
62  to 
79 

Indiana 

i 
« 

.                 *• 

Conn. 

M 

M 
« 
« 
« 

Canada 

9-5 

I.O 
2.0 

2.5 
3-0 

I.O 
2.0 
3-0 
4.0 



19.7 



22O 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

In  Table  VIII  the  Leghorn  chickens  at  the  Connecticut 
station  were  all  pullets  after  the  eighth  week  and  the 
Reds  were  all  pullets  after  the  eleventh  week.  The  White 
Plymouth  Rock  and  the  White  Leghorn  pallets  would 
be  practically  mature  at  the  age  given  but  the  Rhode 
Island  Reds  and  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  would  not 
be  mature  at  these  ages  unless  there  were  a  strain  of  birds 
which  were  small  and  which  matured  earlier  than  the 
average  birds  of  these  breeds.  It  takes  Plymouth  Rocks 
from  4  to  7  weeks  longer  to  mature  than  Leghorns  and 
Rhode  Island  Reds  from  2  to  5  weeks  longer  than  Leg- 
horns. 

Table  IX  gives  detailed  figures  on  the  weights  of  grow- 
ing chickens  of  several  breeds  secured  on  the  govern- 
ment experiment  farm,  Beltsville,  Maryland.  These 
figures  give  average  weights  of  these  breeds  where  the 
growing  chickens  are  kept  under  good  conditions. 
Weights  for  both  pullets  and  cockerels  are  given  and  these 
weights  vary  slightly  from  those  given  in  the  previous 
table.  The  cockerels  in  these  tests  weighed  considerably 
more  than  the  pullets  after  the  first  few  weeks  of  age. 
Chickens  which  do  not  approximately  come  up  to  these 
weights  are  either  being  improperly  managed  or  are  from 
poor  strains  or  of  poor  breeding. 

LABOR  COST  OF  PRODUCING  EGGS 

The  cost  of  labor  in  producing  eggs  is  a  big  item  and 
one  that  has  to  be  carefully  considered  in  profitable 
poultry  farming.  In  many  cases  it  means  the  difference 

221 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 


X! 


3 


OO    M    Tf>O    O*  M 


N  v>ee  N  •* 

M     M     W     M     C* 


O  romco  O 


222 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

between  profit  and  loss  in  the  management  of  the  farm. 
The  poultry  farmer  must  plan  his  farm  to  economize 
labor  in  every  way  that  is  not  detrimental  to  the  health 
and  production  of  the  fowls.  The  labor  on  general  farms 
where  poultry  is  a  side  issue  is  a  factor  of  small  im- 
portance but  becomes  a  big  factor  on  specialty  poultry 
farms.  Convenience  in  the  arrangement  of  the  poultry 
houses,  the  use  of  simple  methods  of  feeding,  and  having 
labor  saving  devices  and  large  feed  hoppers  assist  greatly 
in  keeping  the  labor  charges  to  a  low  level.  The  poultry 
farm  should  be  planned  for  future  growth  and  develop- 
ment and  the  effect  of  arrangement  on  future  labor  costs 
should  be  carefully  considered. 

It  is  essential  in  the  rearing  of  chickens  and  in  the  keep- 
ing of  breeding  stock  that  the  fowls  be  given  a  reasonable 
amount  of  yard  or  range  space  as  it  is  easily  possible  to 
congest  the  plant  so  that  the  vitality  of  the  stock  cannot 
be  maintained.  An  arrangement  which  is  too  congested 
to  keep  up  vigor  and  vitality  is  not  practical,  although  it 
may  involve  the  lowest  expenditure  of  labor.  Labor  can 
be  saved  economically  by  the  arrangement  of  the  yards 
and  buildings,  by  the  placing  of  gates,  by  the  use  of  large 
dry  mash  hoppers  and  in  some  cases  by  the  use  of  feed 
and  litter  carriers.  Litter  and  feed  carriers  are  only 
practical  where  the  houses  are  about  200  or  more  feet 
long.  If  there  are  several  houses  in  one  group,  a  central 
feed  and  shipping  building  may  be  maintained  and  the 
track  arranged  to  use  the  trolley  from  the  central  house 

223 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

to  each  poultry  house.  Be  sure  to  select  only  simple  equip- 
ment and  devices  which  will  wear  well  and  which  do  not 
get  out  of  order  easily. 

Reports  of  a  survey  made  of  Connecticut  farms  and 
published  in  1917  showed  that  the  poultry  feed  consti- 
tuted 41  per  cent  of  the  operating  cost  of  these  farms. 
Some  general  farming  was  carried  on,  involving  con- 
siderable labor  and  giving  good  returns.  The  report  gave 
the  average  cost  as  follows:  poultry  feed,  41  per  cent; 
interest  on  investment,  20  per  cent;  miscellaneous  ex- 
penses, 12  per  cent;  miscellaneous  labor,  9  per  cent; 
miscellaneous  feed,  7  per  cent;  poultry  labor  (hired),  5 
per  cent ;  rent,  taxes,  etc.,  4  per  cent,  and  2  per  cent  for 
seed,  spraying,  and  fertilizer.  The  owner's  labor  is  not 
charged  as  the  net  returns  make  up  his  income.  If  his 
labor  were  included  and  charged  at  a  fair  price  the  labor 
item  would  represent  an  important  item  in  the  cost  of  the 
eggs.  The  receipts  showed  that  69  per  cent  came  from 
poultry  products  and  31  per  cent  from  other  farm 
products. 

In  a  survey  of  cost  of  operation  of  New  Jersey  farms 
reported  in  1918  by  the  State  College,  the  feed  cost  was 
44  per  cent  of  the  total  and  the  outside  man  labor  was 
19  per  cent.  These  farms  were  almost  entirely  devoted 
to  poultry  and  did  not  include  nearly  as  much  general 
farming  as  the  Connecticut  farms.  The  most  successful 
poultry  farms  are  those  operated  directly  by  the  owner 
whose  labor  is  the  biggest  labor  charge  but  on  which  it 
is  difficult  to  place  any  actual  figures.  Most  large  poultry 

224 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

farms  operated  by  salaried  managers  have  not  been  suc- 
cessful as  economical  producers  of  market  eggs. 

GROWING  CROPS  ON  POULTRY  FARMS 

The  poultryman  should  at  least  raise  crops  enough  to 
utilize  his  poultry  manure  to  good  advantage  and  he  may 
find  it  advisable  under  some  conditions  to  raise  a  con- 
siderable part  of  his  feed.  Raising  crops  gives  an  ad- 
vantage in  that  it  freshens  the  land  and  makes  it  much 
better  for  chickens  to  range  upon.  As  a  rule  the  bulk  of 
the  poultry  feed  can  be  raised  more  cheaply  on  grain 
farms  than  it  can  on  poultry  farms.  The  general  farmer 
who  keeps  poultry  should  plan  to  raise  a  grain  crop  suit- 
able for  poultry  and  can  in  most  cases  raise  to  advantage 
all  of  the  necessary  feed  except  the  bran,  middlings  and 
meat  scraps. 

Where  the  poultry  farmer  can  raise  only  a  limited 
amount  of  feed  the  green  feed  should  usually  be  con- 
sidered first  and  then  the  raising  of  one  or  two  grain 
crops.  For  green  feed,  mangel  beets  are  one  of  the  best 
crops  to  raise,  especially  in  the  upper  half  of  this  country. 
Other  good  green  feeds  to  consider  are  cabbages,  alfalfa 
and  clover.  In  sections  where  it  does  well,  especially  on 
the  Pacific  Coast,  kale  is  one  of  the  best  green  crops  to 
produce  and  rape  is  raised  somewhat  for  similar  use. 
Alfalfa  and  clover  are  very  excellent  crops  when  pro- 
duced easily  and  will  furnish  an  abundance  of  succulent 
feed  during  the  growing  season.  Alfalfa  hay  or  meal  is 
not  so  well  liked  by  poultry  as  is  the  green  succulent  crop 

225 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

but  can  be  used  if  no  other  green  crop  can  be  raised  to 
advantage.  Corn  is  one  of  the  best  grains  to  raise  but  at 
least  a  small  crop  of  grain  which  produces  straw  is  well  to 
consider  producing  in  sections  where  oats  or  wheat  can 
be  raised.  The  furnishing  of  the  straw  is  an  item  involv- 
ing considerable  expense  on  a  poultry  farm. 

If  sufficient  land  is  available  to  raise  all  of  the  grain 
for  the  hens  it  will  take  about  26  acres  planted  to  corn, 
wheat  and  oats  to  raise  the  amount  of  these  kinds  of  feed 
consumed  by  a  thousand  Leghorn  hens,  and  about  35 
acres  to  raise  these  crops  for  1,000  general  purpose  fowls. 
This  does  not  allow  for  the  feed  used  for  growing  chicks 
to  replace  these  laying  hens  nor  does  it  allow  for  all  of  the 
feed  required  to  make  up  a  hen's  ration  as  the  bran, 
middlings  and  meat  scrap  will  have  to  be  purchased. 
Where  25  to  35  acres  of  these  grains  are  raised  each  year 
it  would  be  necessary  to  have  available  land  of  at  least 
twice  this  area  to  use  in  rotation  of  crops  in  the  success- 
ful raising  of  these  grains. 

CARE  OF  THE  YARDS  AND  RANGES 

Where  fowls  are  kept  more  or  less  intensively  it  is  very 
essential  to  give  careful  attention  to  the  yards  in  order  to 
keep  the  land  fresh  and  incidentally  to  furnish  some  grow- 
ing green  feed.  The  care  of  the  yards  will  depend  con- 
siderably on  the  plan  and  lay-out  of  the  poultry  farm, 
and  if  double  yards  are  available  for  each  flock,  one  yard 
can  be  kept  in  a  growing  crop  while  the  other  yard  is  be- 

226 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

ing  used  for  the  fowls,  alternating  these  yards  several 
times  during  the  growing  season. 

Where  weather  conditions  are  favorable  it  is  possible 
to  alternate  the  yards  as  often  as  every  4  to  6  weeks  and 
to  get  a  green  crop  of  sufficient  height  in  that  time  to  allow 
the  poultry  range  and  green  feed.  Where  only  one  yard 
is  available  it  is  advisable  to  sow  this  to  grain  at  least 
twice  during  the  growing  season,  confining  the  hens  to  a 
small  part  of  the  yard  near  the  house  for  about  6  weeks 
until  the  grain  is  2  or  3  inches  high  before  the  hens  are 
allowed  to  range  on  it.  If  the  yard  is  ploughed  once  each 
year  it  can  be  harrowed  for  the  succeeding  crops  unless 
the  land  is  very  heavy.  Quick  growing  grain  crops  are 
best  to  use  for  this  purpose,  oats  being  the  most  common 
crop  in  which  about  5  per  cent  of  rape  seed  can  be  added 
especially  during  the  summer  months. 

Seed  oats  or  other  grains  at  the  rate  of  2  to  2^2  bushels 
per  acre  and  from  5  to  7  pounds  of  rape  seed  may  be 
added  to  advantage  in  the  summer.  A  mixture  of  oats 
and  wheat  makes  a  very  good  combination  and  in  the  fall 
rye  should  be  sown  either  straight  or  mixed  with  oats  as 
rye  will  stand  freezing  weather  in  many  sections  of  this 
country  and  much  of  the  grain  will  live  throughout  the 
winter  if  the  fowls  do  not  eat  it  too  closely.  Any  quick- 
growing  grain  crop  adapted  to  one's  section  should  be 
the  one  to  grow  in  the  yards. 

OAT  SPROUTERS 

Sprouted  oats  make  an  excellent  feed  where  no  other 
form  of  green  feed  is  available  for  use  or  to  supplement 

227 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

other  green  feed.  Oats  can  be  easily  sprouted  in  a  home- 
made oat  .sprouter  or  commercial  sprouters  for  this  pur- 
pose may  be  bought.  Where  an  oat  sprouter  is  used  only 
during  mild  weather  a  series  of  open  trays  will  answer 
the  purpose  very  satisfactorily. 

Arrange  a  series  of  trays  like  the  drawers  in  a  cabinet, 
using  seven  trays  which  makes  a  convenient  number,  as 
it  gives  one  tray  of  oats  for  each  day  of  the  week.  This 
means  filling  one  tray  of  oats  to  soak  for  sprouting  each 
day.  A  convenient  size  for  the  trays  is  18  inches  square 
which  would  give  enough  sprouted  oats  daily  if  seven 
trays  are  used,  for  about  250  or  300  hens,  feeding  one 
square  inch  of  sprouted  oats'  surface  per  hen  daily.  Use 
one-eighth  inch  mesh  wire  for  the  bottom  of  the  trays  if 
the  sides  of  the  trays  are  made  of  wood  and  make  the  sides 
two  inches  high. 

A  more  substantial  tray  can  be  made  of  galvanized  iron 
with  holes  one  inch  apart  each  way  and  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter  covering  the  entire  bottom  of  the  tray. 
A  solid  galvanized  iron  pan  of  this  same  size  should  be 
placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  sprouter  to  catch  all  the  surplus 
water  which  drips  through  the  trays  of  oats.  Have  the 
supports  on  which  the  tray  slides  5  inches  apart  which 
will  allow  3  inches  of  open  space  between  each  tray.  In 
an  open  sprouter  of  this  kind  which  does  not  have  to  be 
boxed  in,  all  that  is  necessary  is  the  seven  trays  and  a 
skeleton  cabinet  made  of  strips  2,  in.  by  2  in.  for  the 
corners,  and  cleats  on  both  sides  about  one-half  inch 
thick  and  one  and  a  half  inch  wide  on  which  to  slide  the 

228 


FIG.    17.     OPEN   OATS    SPROUTER   WITH   OATS   AT  DIFFERENT   STAGES 

OF  GROWTH. 


FIG.  18.     ENCLOSED  OATS   SPROUTER  WITH  LAMPS  USED  FOR  HEAT. 
SIMILAR  TO  SPROUTER   IN  FIGURE  6  BUT  MORE  TRAYS   HAVE 
ADDED  AND  THE   ENTIRE   STRUCTURE  ENCLOSED. 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

trays.  These  cleats  would  make  two  solid  sides,  and  three 
pieces  of  2  in.  by  2  in.  uprights  on  both  the  front  and 
back  would  make  the  cabinet  sufficiently  strong. 

If  the  open  sprouter  described  above  is  used  in  a 
kitchen  or  a  cellar  near  the  heater,  sufficient  heat  will  be 
available  to  sprout  oats  even  in  the  winter  time.  If  it  is 
desired  to  use  this  sprouter  during  cool  weather  in  an  un- 
heated  room  or  cellar  it  will  be  necessary  to  box  in  the 
entire  frame  work,  preferably  making  a  double  wall  and 
to  furnish  a  kerosene  lamp  or  some  other  source  of  heat. 
Heavy  roofing  paper  makes  an  excellent  covering  and 
wall  for  a  sprouter  which  has  sufficient  framing  material 
to  support  the  roofing  paper.  The  lamp  should  go  under- 
neath the  sprouter  and  it  is  advisable  to  make  a  tin  com- 
partment in  which  the  lamp  is  placed  to  prevent  any 
danger  from  fire.  A  heavy  galvanized  iron  pan  should 
be  placed  in  the  bottom  over  the  lamp  in  which  water 
should  always  be  kept.  The  steam  from  the  pan  helps  to 
supply  moisture  to  the  oats.  The  heat  from  the  lamp 
thus  would  strike  directly  on  this  pan  and  go  up  through 
the  open  double  wall  which  should  be  open  at  the  bottom 
to  receive  the  heat.  This  air  space  can  be  made  from  a 
half  to  an  inch  in  thickness.  Two  holes  about  an  inch 
and  a  half  in  diameter  should  be  bored  on  the  sides  of  the 
sprouter  near  the  top  to  let  out  the  surplus  heat  and  allow 
ventilation.  The  top  of  the  sprouter  should  be  hinged  so 
that  it  can  be  raised  to  let  out  extra  heat  or  furnish  addi- 
tional ventilation  in  very  warm,  damp  weather.  A  door 
hinged  on  the  side  covering  the  entire  front  of  the  sprouter 

229 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

is  necessary  and  if  this  can  be  made  of  glass  it  will  assist 
one  in  seeing  the  condition  of  the  oats  without  opening 
the  door,  although  this  is  not  essential.  It  also  gives 
green  color  to  the  oat  sprouts.  The  compartment  under- 
neath in  which  the  lamp  is  inclosed  should  have  a  separate 
tin  or  galvanized  iron  door  with  an  open  space  about  an 
inch  and  a  half  high,  below  the  door  for  air  and  also  a  hole 
about  three  inches  in  diameter  opposite  the  flame  of  the 
lamp  so  that  the  light  can  be  readily  seen  without  opening 
the  door.  A  large  lamp  with  a  wick  of  from  one  to  one 
and  a  half  inches  in  width  is  preferable  for  a  fair  sized 
sprouter  in  order  to  supply  plenty  of  heat  during  the 
coldest  weather.  A  tin  chimney  about  five  inches  high 
with  a  small  piece  of  isinglass  opposite  the  flame  should 
be  used  on  the  lamp,  placed  in  a  hinged  screw  burner 
which  will  hold  this  tin  chimney  tightly.  Let  the  sprouter 
legs  extend  three  or  four  inches  below  the  lamp  box  so 
that  the  entire  sprouter  will  stand  well  up  off  the  floor 
and  thereby  keep  dry.  Place  a  one-half  inch  strip  in  the 
center  of  the  inside  of  the  back  of  the  cabinet  to  prevent 
the  trays  from  fitting  tight  against  the  back  and  thereby 
provide  additional  ventilation  in  the  sprouter. 

LABOR-SAVING   DEVICES 

Large  feed  hoppers  will  save  considerable  labor  on  a 
poultry  farm  if  the  dry  mash  system  of  feeding  is  used. 
An  indoor  hopper  for  the  mash  is  commonly  used  and 
may  be  of  several  different  styles.  One  of  the  simplest 
plans  is  an  open  box  hopper  such  as  is  shown  in  Figure 

230 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

13  which  may  be  made  of  any  size  desired.  This  is 
merely  an  open  box  arrangement  with  a  slat  follower 
laid  on  top  of  the  mash.  The  holes  in  the  slat  follower 
should  be  2  inches  .square  and  the  follower  should  be  2 
inches  narrower  than  the  dimensions  of  the  inside  of  the 
box.  A  convenient  sized  hopper  for  a  small  pen  is  a  box 
1 8  inches  square  and  10  inches  deep  while  for  a  larger  pen 
a  long  narrow  box,  one  3  or  4  feet  long,  18  inches  wide 
and  10  or  12  inches  deep  is  very  .satisfactory.  Such  a 
hopper  is  absolutely  wasteproof  and  the  feed  is  always 
available  to  the  hens.  In  wet  weather  where  the  yards  are 
very  muddy  the  hens  may  track  some  of  the  mud  into 
this  hopper,  making  this  style  of  hopper  slightly  objec- 
tionable. On  light  soil  or  where  the  hens  are  kept  con- 
fined in  a  house  so  that  there  is  little  or  no  opportunity 
for  mud  to  get  into  the  box,  a  hopper  of  this  kind  is  very 
satisfactory. 

Another  style  of  indoor  dry  mash  hopper  which  is 
shown  on  page  232  makes  a  good  type  of  wall  or  room 
hopper  which  has  a  storage  feeding  arrangement  whereby 
the  mash  comes  down  to  the  hens  as  it  is  eaten  out  of 
the  hopper.  The  difficulty  with  this  type  of  hopper  is  to 
have  the  mash  flow  freely  and  still  not  come  down  so 
fast  that  the  hens  can  dig  it  out  of  the  feeding  part  of  the 
hopper  and  waste  the  mash.  A  curved  metal  bottom  used 
on  this  hopper  makes  the  grain  flow  freely  and  having 
an  opening  on  either  .side  of  the  hopper  largely  eliminates 
the  possibility  of  the  grain  choking  so  that  it  stops  flow- 
ing freely  in  the  box.  A  hopper  of  this  type  can  be  made 

231 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 


FIG.  21.    WALL  TYPE  OF  DRY  MASH  FEED  HOPER 
232 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 


any  size  desired  depending  on  the  size  of  the  flock.  A 
hopper  which  will  hold  about  2  weeks*  supply  of  mash  is 
usually  sufficiently  large  as  it  is  not  advisable  to  have  too 
large  a  supply  of  mash  in  the  hopper.  Allow  about  10 
pounds  of  mash  daily  for  100  hens.  Both  types  of  dry 
mash  hoppers  should  be  raised  4  to  6  inches  above  the 
floor  so  that  the  straw  will  not  be  scratched  into  the 
hopper.  The  hopper  may  be  placed  on  a  platform  a  foot 
or  1 8  inches  above  the  floor  to  prevent  any  chance  of  straw 
getting  into  the  mash. 


FIG.  22 

A  good  type  of  self-feeder  for  the  dry  mash  for 
growing  chicks  is  shown  above  which  is  used  on  the 
poultry  range  out  of  doors  and  is  covered  with  roofing 
paper  to  keep  the  feed  dry  in  all  kinds  of  weather.  By 

233 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

having  a  constant  supply  of  mash  on  the  range  the 
chickens  are  always  able  to  get  plenty  of  feed  and  a 
hopper  of  this  kind  is  a  splendid  investment.  If  a  dry 
mash  is  used  for  the  small  chicks  in  the  brooder  house 
an  open  box  hopper  along  the  types  shown  in  Figure  13 
but  much  smaller  in  size  is  very  satisfactory.  Such  a 
hopper  should  be  about  12  inches  wide,  18  inches  long 
and  4  to  5  inches  deep.  It  will  be  necessary  to  put  this 
hopper  right  on  the  floor  for  the  small  chicks  in  order 
that  they  can  get  into  the  box  but  as  the  chicks  grow 
larger  it  can  be  raised  up  off  the  floor  to  keep  the  litter 
from  getting  into  the  feed.  Baby  chicks  just  hatched 
should  be  fed  by  hand  in  open  troughs  until  they  are 
large  enough  to  jump  up  into  a  box  of  this  kind. 


FIG.  23.     ANOTHER  STYLE  OF  OUTDOOR  FEED  HOPPER 
234 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

Automatic  watering  devices  are  very  helpful  on  a 
large  poultry  farm  and  are  especially  practical  in  sections 
where  the  water  does  not  freeze  during  the  winter.  Vari- 
ous types  of  automatic  devices  such  as  are  manufactured 
by  dairy  supply  houses  and  other  implement  manufac- 
turers are  used  in  poultry  houses.  The  simplest  kind  of 
devices  should  be  secured  for  this  purpose  as  complicated 
systems  are  expensive  to  keep  in  repair.  Supplying  water 
automatically  saves  a  large  amount  of  labor  and  also 
keeps  a  fresher  supply  of  water  before  the  fowls.  It 
usually  pays  to  have  water  piped  to  the  different  poultry 
houses  and  different  parts  of  the  range  even  though  auto- 
matic devices  for  supplying  water  are  not  furnished  iri 
each  pen  in  the  poultry  house  or  in  each  yard  on  the 
range.  Litter  and  feed  carriers  may  sometimes  be  used 
to  advantage  on  a  poultry  farm  but  are  only  practical  on 
poultry  farms  where  the  hens  are  kept  in  long  poultry 
houses.  Where  the  houses  are  16  or  more  feet  in  depth 
and  200  or  more  feet  in  length,  the  use  of  a  litter  and  feed 
carrier  is  worth  considering  but  it  is  questionable  whether 
they  are  a  profitable  investment  in  all  cases  even  in  houses 
of  this  size, 


235 


APPENDIX 

This  table  gives  a  number  of  the  best  rations  for 
egg  production  to  supplement  the  material  found  in  the 
text  of  this  book.  These  rations  include  those  recom- 
mended by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
and  also  by  experiment  stations  in  each  section  of  this 
country.  The  mash  is  the  most  important  part  of  an 
egg  laying  ration.  The  scratch  mixture  can  be  changed 
freely,  according  to  the  prices  of  grains  as  each  of  the 
various  constituents  of  the  scratch  mixtures  have  about 
the  same  nutritive  ratio  and  much  of  the  same  value. 

TABLE  I — EGG  LAYING  RATIONS 

Recommended  by  Mash  Scratch  Mixture 

U.   S.   Department  16  Ibs.  corn  meal  i  or  2  Ibs.  cracked  corn 

of  Agriculture  6^2  Ibs.  meat  scrap  i  Ib.  wheat 

i  Ib.  bran  i  Ib.  oats 

1  Ib.  middlings 

2  Ibs    corn  meal  or  2  Ibs.  cracked  corn 
barley  meal  i  Ib.  oats 

i  Ib.  bran  i  Ib.  wheat  or  barley 

i  Ib.  middlings 

i  Ib.  meat  or  fish  scrap 

i  Ib.  bran  3  Ibs.  cracked  corn 

1  Ib.  middlings  a  Ibs.  oats 

3  Ibs.  corn  meal  z  Ib.  wheat 
ij4  Ibs.  meat  scrap 

2  Ibs.  ground  oats 
5%  linseed  meal 

The  last  ration  given  is  especially  adapted  for  general 
purpose  fowls  or  any  fowls  which  have  a  tendency  to 
become  overfat  on  the  other  rations  given  above. 

236 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 


Mash 

9  Ibs.  corn  meal 
5  Ibs.  middlings 
4  Ibs.  bran 

2  Ibs.  cottonseed  or  gluten  meal 
2  Ibs.  meat  scrap 
2%  bone  meal 


Mash 


or 


i  V*  Ibs.  cottonseed  meal 

1  Yt  Ibs.  peanut  meal 

2  Ibs.  gluten  meal 
9  Ibs.  corn  meal 

4  Ibs.  bran 

5  Ibs.  middlings 
2%  dried  milk 


These  mashes  utilize  cottonseed  meal  but  do  not  give 
as  high  egg  production  as  mashes  with  meat  scrap. 


Recommended  by 
Vineland  Egg  Laying 
Contest  (N.  J.) 


Massachusetts 

Agricultural 

College 


New  York  State 
College  of  Agriculture 


Purdue  University 


Mash 
100  Ibs.  bran 
100  Ibs.  middlings 
100  Ibs.  ground  oats 
100  Ibs.  corn  meal 
100  Ibs.meat  scrap 

100  Ibs.  bran 

100  Ibs.  middlings,  Red 

Dog   or   low   grade 

flour 
100  Ibs.    corn    meal    or 

hominy 

100  Ibs.  gluten 
TOO  Ibs.  ground  oats 
TOO  Ibs.  meat  scrap 

60  Ibs. corn  meal 

60  Ibs.    middlings  or 

shorts 

50  Ibs.  meat  scrap 
30  Ibs.  bran 
jo  Ibs.  linseed 
10  Ibs.  alfalfa  mfeal 
i  Ib.  salt 

5  Ibs.  bran 
3  Ibs    shorts 
zYi  Ibs.  meat  scrap 
or  tankage 


Scratch  Mixture 

100  Ibs.  cracked  corn 

100  Ibs.  wheat 

100  Ibs.  clipped  oats 


300  Ibs.  cracked  corn 

200  Ibs.  wheat 

100  Ibs.  oats  or  barley 


3  Ibs.  wheat 

2  Ibs.  corn  or  kafir 

i  Ib.  oats 


10  Ibs.  corn 

10  Ibs.  wheat 

5  Ibs.  oats 


Ontario  Agricultural  500  Ibs.  shorts  40  Ibs.  cracked  corn 

College  500  Ibs.  low  grade  flour         40  Ibs.  wheat 

750  Ibs.  corn  chop  20  Ibs.  oats  or 

300  Ibs.  bran  buckwheat 

500  Ibs.  oats  chop 
150  Ibs.  high  grade 

tankage 

This  ration  is  fed  with  buttermilk  as  a  drink  before  the  fowls.    If  no  butter- 
milk is  available,  increase  the  tankage  to  600  Ibs. 
Owens  Farm  2  Ibs.  clover 

Breeding  Mash  2  Ibs.  alfalfa 

3  Ibs.  bran 

3  Ibs.  ground  oata 

4  Ibs.  corn  meal 

1  Ib.  oil  meal 

2  Ibs.  gluten  meal 


3  Ibs.  scrap 
This  is  especially  adapted  for  breeding  fowls. 

237 


POULTRY  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

California                                   50  Ibs.  bran  i  lb.  fine  salt 

Agricultural                               50  Ibs.  middlings  2  Ibs.   rolled   or   whole 

College                                          50  Ibs.  ground  barley  barley  or  wheat 

or  ground  oats  i  lb.  Egyptian  corn  or 

10  Ibs.  soy  bean  meal  or  Milo  Maize 

linseed,  cottonseed  or  i  lb.  cracked  corn 
ground  beans 
30  Ibs.  meat  or  fish  scrap 
5  Ibs.  charcoal 


238 


PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 


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PRACTICAL  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 


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241 


INDEX 


Acorns,  94 

Alfalfa,  use  of,  07,  102,  128 

Value  of,  101,  128 

Meal,  102,  103,  128 
Anatomy  of  fowls,  25 

Illustrated,  26 

Backyard  flock,  management  of, 

142,   143,   144 
Balanced  ration  explained,  43, 

H7,  147 
Barley,  62 

Malt,  62 

Feed,  63 

Meal,  63 
Beans,  72 

Cooking,  114 

Pea  beans,  73 

Soy  beans,  72,  151 

Soy  bean  meal,  72,  73,  151 

Velvet  bean  meal,  151 
Beets,  106,  127 

Pulp,  91 
Blood  meal,  82 
Bone,   fresh,  84 

Preparation  and  preserving,  85 

Use  of,  85,  150 
Bone  meal,  85,  96,  150 

Composition,  96 

Ground,  86 
Bread,  58 
Brewer's  grains    (wet),  63 

Dry,  62 

Malt  sprouts,  63 
Buckwheat,  value  of,  68 

By-products,  68 

Cabbages,  108,  127 
Capons,  212,  213 

Fattening,  213 

Feed  standard,  48 
Carbohydrates,  how  produced,  18 

Function  of,  42 

Starches  and  sugars,  18,  53 


Carriers  for  feed  and  litter,  235 

Carrots,  107 

Charcoal,  132 

Chicks   (feeding),  157 

Amount  feed  to  grow,  160 

Cost  of  growing,  219 

Green  feed  for,  160 

Johnycake  for,  158 

Weight  of  growing,  222 
Chick  feeds,  153,  158 

Mash   and  growing   feed,    159 
Chlorophyll,   function  of,  18 
Cleaning  poultry  house,  183 
Clover,  103,  104,  128,  129 
Cocoanut  meal,  75 
Color  of  yolk,  156 
Commercial  feeds,  121,  144 

Chick  feeds,  158 

Selection  of,  152 

Use  of,  151 

Value  of,  122 

Composition  of  eggs,  23,  24 
Composition  of   feeds    (table), 

239,  240,  241 

Composition  of  poultry,  23,  24 
Condimental  feeds,  94,  95 
Corn,  51,  52 

Bran,  54 

Gluten  meal,  53 

Oil  cake,  53,  54 
Corn  meal,  52,  53,  54 
Corn  and  cob  meal,  52,  54 
Costs,  215 

Feed  for  eggs,  215,  216 

Growing  chicks,  219 

Labor  producing  eggs,  221 
Cottonseed  meal,  75,  151 

Cake,  76,  77 

Grades  of,  76 

Hulls,  77 

Cramming  poultry,  173 
Crate  fattening,  166 

Best  time  for,  167,  172 


243 


INDEX 


Gains  in,  167 

Hens,  1 68 

Length  of  period  in,  170,  171 

Milk  for,  169 

Management  in,  173 

Plan  of  battery  for,  165 

Rations  for,  168,  169 

Tallow  in,  169 
Crops  for  poultry  farm,  225 
Culling,  188 

Shank  color  in,  189 

Digestion,  25,  26 

Elimination  of  waste  products 
in,  28 

Function  of  organs  in,  27 

Of  foods,  27 

Tests,  148 

Distiller's  grains,  93,  94 
Dressing  poultry,  38 

Drawn  vs.  undrawn,  178 

Per  cent  parts  in,  38 

Shrinkage  in,  38,  178 
Duck  farming,  35 
Feeding  ducklings  and  breeders, 
194,   195,   196 

Feeding  for  market,  195 

Feeding  laying  ducks,  197 

Green  ducks,  196 

Early  hatching,  182 
Egg  yield  by  months,  218 
Eggs,  28 

Composition,  23 

Feed  per  dozen,  32 

Per  cent  edible  solids,  30,  32 

Per  cent  of  parts,  28 

Production  of  vs.  poultry,   12 

Size,  28,  29 

Structrue,  28 
Emmer,  64 
Epsom  salts,  98 
Exercise,  138,  182 

Farm  flock  management,  140,  141 
Farming  (poultry),  14 

Duck,  35 

Meat  vs.  egg,  34 


Soft  roaster,  34,  35 
Fats,  function  of,  42 

How  produced,  18 
Fattening,  36,  37 

Feed  per  pound  gain,  32 

Hens,   164 

How  to,  161 

Milk  in,  37 

Pen,  163 

Season   for,  38 

See  crate  fattening,  166 

selection    stock   for,    162 
Feather  picking,  169 
Feed,  41 

Amount  consumed  per  hen,  218 

Amount    required    to    produce 
eggs  (table),  216,  217 

Amount      required     to     grow 
chicks  (table),  220 

How    analyzed,    41 

Standards,  40 

Value  of  nutriments,  41 
Fish  Meal,  86,  87 

Oil  content,  87 

Where  produced,  87 
Fresh  Fish,  87 

For  ducks,  196 
Flax  seed,  77 

Feed,  78 
Food,  27 

Digestion  of,  27 

Production  by  poultry  vs.  ani- 
mals, 30 

Value  of  poultry  and  eggs,  n 
Forcing,  effects  of,  191 

Garbage,   142,  143,  144 
Geese,   198 

Fattening,   200 

Feeding  goslings,  199 

Noodling,  201,  202 

Preparing  for  maiket,  200 
Grass,  98 

Care  of  range,  TOO,  226 

Varieties  of,  100,  101 
Green  Feeds,  97 

Growing  of,  227 


244 


INDEX 


Grit,  131 

Composition  of  limestone,  95 
For  turkeys  and  fattening,  131 

Hemp   Seed,   for  pigeons,  79 

Hominy,  5 

Hoppers  for  Mash,  230,  231,  232, 

234 
Outdoor   feed,  233 

Jewish  Holidays  affecting  prices, 
176 

Kaffir,  64,  67 
Kale,  109 

Lactic  Acid,  22 
Labor  survey,  224 

Cost   of    Producing  eggs,   221 

Saving  devices,  230 
Lights,  185 

Effect  on  breeding  fowls,   186 

Evening  lunch,  18 
Linseed  Meal,  77,  78 

Testing,  78 

Use  for  moulting,  79 
Live   poultry    shipping,    180,    181 

Description  of   cars,   180 

Malt  sprouts,  63 

Management     of     poultry,     214, 
215,  223 

Back  yard  flock,  142,  143,  144 

Breeding  hens,  185,  190 

Broody  hens,  191 

Exercise,  138 

Farm  flock,  140,  141 

Land     required     for     raising 
grain,  223 

Laying  hens,  185 

Males,    190 

Proportion  of  grain  to  mash, 

137,  138 
Marketing  Poultry,  174 

Age  to  market  hens,  178,  179 

Hens,  live  and  dressed,  175 

Prices  for  live  chickens,  175 

Prices    for    live    and    dressed 
fowls,  177 


Mash,  use  of,  118 

The  amount  to  use,  119 

How  mixed,   123 

Wet  versus  dry,   118,   119 
Meat    (fresh),   84 

Horse  meat,  84 
Meat  Scrap,  82 

Amount  to  use,  83 

How  produced,  82 

Meal,    82 

Tests  for  quality,  83 
Milk,  88,  89 

Composition,    89 

Skim    Milk,   88 

Use  in  fattening,  37 

Whey,  89 

Milk  (dried),  90,  91 
Milk   (semi-solid),  90,  91 

In  fattening,   169 
Millet,  67 
Minerals,  24 

Amount  in  plants,  17,  19 

Feeds,  95,  96 

Lime    Stone    Grit,    90 

Per  cent  in  poultry  and  eggs, 
24 

Rock  phosphate,  96 

Source  of,  in  feeds,  25 
Molasses,  92 

Beet  molasses,  93 

Feeds,  93 

Mortality  in  chicks,  219 
Moulting,  187,  1 88 

Nitrogenous     Compounds,     pro- 
duction of,  19 
Nutrients    (essential),  42 

Affected  by  origin,  47 

Effect  of  drying,  43 

Fat  soluble    (A),  42,  43 

Sources  of,  43 

Table   of   digestible,   239,  240, 
241 

Water  soluble  (B),  42,  43 
Nutritive  Ration,  44,  147 

Balanced  ration,  43 

Examples   of,  45 


245 


INDEX 


For  laying,  growing  and  fat- 
tening, 46,  47 
Table   of,   239,   240,   241 
Value  of,  46 

Oats,  58 

Clipped   oats,  60,  6l 

Ground  oats,  59 

Oat  dust,  60 

Oat    groats,    60 

Oat  middlings,  60 

Rolled  oats  or  oat  meal,  59,  61 

Value  as  a  feed,  58,  61 
Oyster    Shells,    129 

Amount  to  use,  130 

Compared  with  clam  and  mus- 
sel shells,   130 

Composition,  95 

Palatability  of  feeds,  21 

Peanuts,  74 

Peanut   Meal,   74,  75 

Use   in    fattening,  75 
Peas,  70 

Canada  peas,  70 

Cow  peas,  73 

Garden  peas,  71 

Soiling  crop,  71 

Use  in  pigeon  ration,  70,  71 
Pigeons   (flying),  211,  212 

Feeds  for,  211,  212 

Pigeon  loft,  210 
Pigeons   (squab  breeders),  210 

Analysis  pigeon  feed,  209 

Bathing  for,  211 

Feeding,  207,  210 

Grit  for,   132,  211 

Quality  of  feed  for,  208 
Plants  for  food,  17 

Elements  in,  17 

Fibrous    structure    of,    18 
Poisonous  plants  and  feeds,  113 


Dried,   107 

Feeding,    107 
Poultry,   1 1 

Composition,  23 

Edible   solids    in,    30,    32 

Feed  per  pound  gain,  32 

Importance  and   value   of,    n, 
13,  31 

Production  of,  13 
Preparation  of  feeds,  20,  114 

Effect  of  cooking,  21,  22 
Proteins,  19 

Animal  protein  feeds,  148,  149 
ISO 

Composition  of,   19 

Feeds,    147 

Function  of,  42 

Vegetable  protein  feeds,  150 
Pullets    (feeding),   120,   137,   182 

Management      different      from 

hens,   190 
Pumpkins,  no 

Quality  in  feeds,  139,  140,  145 
Effect  on  products,  154,  155 

Quantity  to  feed,  135. 
Amount  consumed,  136 

Rape,  108 

For  soiling  crop,   108,  109 
Rations,   236 

Table  of  egg  laying,  236,  237 
Rice,  80 

Products,  80,  81 
Roasters  (Production  of),  164 
Roots,   105 
Rye,   63 
Rutabaga,    106 

Salt,  22 

For  pigeons,   132 
Scratch    feed,    118,    120 

Mixtures   for, 


— r .„  ,^^f    iiO  j.rj.iAiui  ca     1VU)     i^u 

Polyneuntis    from    rice    feeding,      Selection  of  feeds,  146,  147 


80 

Pork  Cracklings,  84 
Potatoes,    107 
Cooking,    114 


Commercial  feeds,  151,  152 
Silage,   no 
Soiling  crops,  105 

For  feed,  124 


246 


INDEX 


For  yards,  125 

How  to  use,   123 

Value  and  use,  no 
Sorghums,   64,  65,   66,  67 

Broom  corn,  67 

Durra,   67 

Egyptian  corn,  65,  67 

Feterita,  66 

Kaffir,  65 

Milo,    65 

Shallu,  66 
Sprouted  grains,  126,  127 

Changes    in,    112 

Mould  in,  127 
Sprouter,  227,  228 

Care  of,  229 
Standards  feeding,  40 

Energy  values,  40 

For  chicks  and  fowls,  47 

Method  of  measuring  for  ani- 
mal and  fowls,  40,  44 


Stock  feeds,  94 
Sunflower  seed,  69 
Oil  cake,  69 

Tankage,  82,  83 
Turkeys,  202,  203 

Feeding  poults,  204,  205 

Fattening,  206 

Water,  133,  183 

Automatic  devices  for,  133,  235 

Use  on  range,  133 
Weights  of  growing  chicks,  222 
Wheat,  55 

Bran,   56 

Flour,  57 

Middlings,    56,    57 

Screenings,    57 

Shorts,   57 

Yeast,  112,  113 


247 


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The  Book  of  Corn 

By  HERBERT  MYRICK,  assisted  by  A.  D.  SHAMBIA,  E.  A. 
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Modern     Methods    of    Testing    Milk    and    Milk 
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By  L.  L.  VANSLYKE.  This  is  a  clear  and  concise  discussion 
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authoritatively  arranged.  The  chapters  which  he  has  written 
on  the  more  involved  features  of  the  subject,  as  sex  and  the 
relative  influence  of  parents,  should  go  far  toward  setting  at 
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Forage  Crops  Other  Than  Grasses 

By  THOMAS  SHAW.  How  to  cultivate,  harvest  and  use 
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Intensely  practical  and  reliable.  Illustrated.  287  pages.  5x7 
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of  soiling  crops,  conditions  to  which  they  are  adapted,  their 
plan  in  the  rotation,  etc.  Not  a  line  is  repeated  from  the 
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The  Study  of  Breeds 

By  THOMAS  SHAW.  Origin,  history,  distribution,  charac- 
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pedigreed  breeds  of  cattle,  sheep  and  swine  in  America.  The 
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Clovers  and  How  to  Grow  Them 

By  THOMAS  SHAW.  This  is  the  first  book  published  which 
treats  on  the  growth,  cultivation  and  treatment  of  clovers  as 
applicable  to  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and 
which  takes  up  the  entire  subject  in  a  systematic  way  and 
consecutive  sequence.  The  importance  of  clover  in  the  econ- 
omy of  the  farm  is  so  great  that  an  exhaustive  work  on  this 
subject  will  no  doubt  be  welcomed  by  students  in  agriculture, 
as  well  as  by  all  who  are  interested  in  the  tilling  of  the  soil. 
Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  337  pages.  Cloth.  Net  .  . 

113) 


Land  Draining 

A  handbook  for  farmers  on  the  principles  and  practice  of 
draining,  by  MANLY  MILES,  giving  the  results  of  his  extended 
experience  in  laying  tile  drains.  The  directions  for  the  laying 
out  and  the  construction  of  tile  drains  will  enable  the  farmer 
to  avoid  the  errors  of  imperfect  construction,  and  the  disap- 
pointment that  must  necessarily  follow.  This  manual  for 
practical  farmers  will  also  be  found  convenient  for  reference 
in  regard  to  many  questions  that  may  arise  in  crop  growing, 
aside  from  the  special  subjects  of  drainage  of  which  it  treats. 
Illustrated.  200  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth 

Barn  Plans  and  Outbuildings 

Two  hundred  and  fifty-seven  illustrations.  A  most  valu- 
able work,  full  of  ideas,  hints,  suggestions,  plans,  etc.,  for  the 
construction  of  barns  and  outbuildings,  by  practical  writers. 
Chapters  are  devoted  to  the  economic  erection  and  use  of 
barns,  grain  barns,  horse  barns,  cattle  barns,  sheep  barns, 
cornhouses,  smokehouses,  icehouses,  pig  pens,  granaries,  etc. 
There  are  likewise  chapters  on  birdhouses,  doghouses,  tool 
sheds,  ventilators,  roofs  and  roofing,  doors  and  fastenings, 
workshops,  poultry  houses,  manure  sheds,  barnyards,  root  pits, 
etc.  235  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth 

Irrigation  Farming 

By  LUTE  WILCOX.  A  handbook  for  the  practical  applica- 
tion of  water  in  the  production  of  crops.  A  complete  treatise 
on  water  supply,  canal  construction,  reservoirs  and  ponds, 
pipes  for  irrigation  purposes,  flumes  and  their  structure, 
methods  of  applying  water,  irrigation  of  field  crops,  the 
garden,  the  orchard  and  vineyard,  windmills  and  pumps, 
appliances  and  contrivances.  New  edition,  revised,  enlarged 
and  rewritten.  Profusely  illustrated.  Over  500  pages.  5x7 
inches.  Cloth 

Forest  Planting 

By  H.  NICHOLAS  JARCHOW,  LL,  D.  A  treatise  on  the  care 
of  woodlands  and  the  restoration  of  the  denuded  timberlands 
on  plains  and  mountains.  The  author  has  fully  described 
those  European  methods  which  have  proved  to  be  most  useful 
in  maintaining  the  superb  forests  of  the  old  world.  This  expe- 
rience has  been  adapted  to  the  different  climates  and  trees  oV 
America,  full  instructions  being  given  for  forest  planting  of 
our  various  kinds  of  soil  and  subsoil,  whether  on  mountain 
or  valley.  Illustrated.  250  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth. 


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